
Copy 1 



A Comparative Study of the Township 

District, ConsoHdated, Town and 

City Schools of Indiana 



BY 

LESTER BURTON ROGERS, A.M. 

Professor of Education, Lawrence College 
Appleton, Wisconsin 

Research Scholar, Teachers College, 1910-11 



Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for 

THE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty 

of Philosophy, Columbia University 



George Banta Publishing Companv 
Menasha, Wisconsin 



A Comparative Study of the Township 

District, ConsoHdated, Town and 

City Schools of Indiana 



BY 

LESTER BURTON ROGERS, A.M. 

Professor of Education, Lawrence College 
Appleton, Wisconsin 

Research Scholar, Teachers College, 1910-11 



Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for 

THE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty 

OF Philosophy, Columbia University 



George Banta Publishing Company 
Menasba, Wisconsin 






Copyright 1915 
By LfesTER Burton Rogers 



Gift 

> TTtiivertltjf 

MAS 4 m% 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter I. — Introduction page 

I. Current opinions concerning rural education and consolidation. 2. Pur- 
pose of this investigation. 3. Selection and distribution of school 
corporations investigated. 4. Original data. 5. Definition of terms. 
6. System of organization and administration. 7. Statistical method 
employed. . .1 j 

Chapter II. — School Plants 
I. Basis for comparison. 2. Original data presented. 3. Comparison of 
the different types of schools. 4. Recent legislation relative to the 
sanitation of school buildings. 5. Standards applied to existing 
schools I A 

Chapter III. — Teachers 
I. Legal qualifications. 2. Sex. 3. Grade teachers; (a) Professional 
training, (b) Experience, (c) Classification and salary. 4. High 
School teachers; (a) Professional training, (b) Experience, (c) Sal- 
ary. 5. Special teachers ; (a) Number and distribution, (b) Salary. . 37 
Chapter IV. — Enrichment of Curricula 
I. The course of study as an index of the work of the school. 2. The 
state course of study. 3. Legal requirements. 4. Extent of the use 
of the state manual. 5. Local courses of study y;^ 

Chapter V. — Supervision 
I. Supervisory staffs. 2. Nature and extent of the supervision of instruc- 
tion. 3. Professional improvement of teachers in the service. 
4. Medical inspection. 5. School and community activities 80 

Chapter VI. — School Statistics 
I. Original data. 2. Changes in population. 3. School census. 4. Enroll- 
ment. 5. Average daily attendance. 6. Length of school year 92 

Chapter VII. — School Finances — Receipts 
I. Basis of support of schools. 2. Distribution of state tax. 3. Distribu- 
tion of county and local levies and wealth per capita school population. 
4. Relation of wealth per capita and tax levies. 5. Tuition receipts. 
6. Distribution of the Common School Fund. 7. Results obtained by 
use of teacher- average-daily-attendance basis 103 

Chapter VIII. — School Finances — Expenditures 
I. Distribution of expenditures. 2. Relation of expenditures to wealth 
per capita and tax levies. 3. Distribution of expenditures in the 
corporations spending more than the average for the group 152 

Chapter IX. — Summary and Conclusion 
I. Application of facts revealed to the claims made for consolidated 
schools. 2. Needs for reorganization. 3. Suggestions for reorgani- 
zation. 4. The effect of reorganization on the different types of 
schools. 5. Conclusion 201 

iii 



LIST OF TABLES 



TABLES 

I-IV 

V 
VI-IX 

X 

XI 

XII 
XIII 
XIV 

XV 

XVI 

XVII-XIX 

XX 

XXI 

XXII 

XXIII- 

XXIV 

XXV 

XXVI 

XXVII 

XXVIII 
XXIX 

XXX 

XXXI 
XXXII- 

XXXV 
XXXVI- 
XXXIX 
XL 

XLI-XLIV 

XLV 



PAGE 



Buildings, sanitation and equipment in the four types 

of schools 15-26 

Summary of statistics on school plants 28 

Distribution of grade teachers on basis of sex, pro- 
fessional training, experience, rank and salary 40-47 

Summary of distribution of grade teachers on basis 

of sex 48 

Summary of distribution of grade teachers on basis 

of professional training 49 

Percentile distribution of teachers on basis of training 49 

Distribution of grade teachers on basis of experience 54 

Percentile distribution of grade teachers in periods of 

years of experience 55 

Distribution of grade teachers on basis of rank and 

salary 55 

Salaries of all grade teachers in the four types of 

schools compared with salaries in earlier years... 56 

Distribution of high school teachers on basis of sex, 

training, experience and salary 58-60 

Training of high school teachers 61 

Percentile distribution of high school teachers on 

basis of training 6i 

Distribution of high school teachers on basis of 

experience 63 

Distribution of high school teachers, including prin- 
cipals, on basis of salary 67-68 

Special teachers and supervisors 70 

Salaries of special teachers 71 

Median salaries of grade, special, and high school 

teachers in the different types of schools ^2 

Courses of study used in different types of schools. . . 76 

Number and per cent of schools offering the newer 

subjects 78 

Supervision in the different types of schools 80 

Nature and extent of school and community activities 89 

Population and school statistics for the four types 

of schools 93-96 

Changes in population, and school statistics given in 

per cents 97-100 

Central tendencies and deviations in population and 

school statistics loi 

Property valuation and tax levies in the four types 

of corporations 106-111 

Central tendencies and deviations in corporation 

wealth and tax levies 1 13 

V 



VI 



List of Tables 



XLVI- 

XLIX 
L 



LI-LIV 

LIVa 

LV-LVIII 

LIX-LXII 

LXIII- 

LXVI 

LXVII 

LXVIII 



LXIX- 
LXXII 
LXXIII 



LXXIV- 
LXXVII 
LXXVIII- 

LXXXI 
LXXXII- 
LXXXV 
LXXXVI 

LXXXVII- 
XC 
XCI 



XCII-XCV 
XCVI 



Wealth per capita school population and percentile 

distribution of tax levies 114-117 

Central tendencies and deviations of v^realth per 
capita, and tax levies on basis of per cent of total 
tax levies 119 

Data for comparison of wealth per capita and tax 

levies in the four types of corporations 121-122 

Quartile ratios of wealth per capita and tax levies 

in the four types of corporations 123 

Sources and amounts of tuition receipts 124-127 

Percentile distribution of tuition receipts 128-131 

Distribution of tuition receipts on basis of number of 

pupils in average daily attendance 134-137 

Central tendencies and deviations in percentile dis- 

tibution of tuition receipts 138 

Central tendencies and deviations in tuition receipts 
on basis of amount received per pupil in average 
daily attendance 141 

Data showing the effect of distribution of state funds 

on teacher-average-daily-attendance basis 142-145 

Comparison of effect of teacher-average-daily-attend- 
ance basis of distribution on the four types of 
schools 148 

Distribution of school expenditures 149-158 

Percentile distribution of school expenditures I59-I75 

Distribution of expenditures on basis of pupils in 

average daily attendance 176-183 

Central tendencies and deviations from central ten- 
dencies in distribution of school expenditures. . . . 184 

Data for comparison of total cost per pupil to teach- 
ers' salaries, wealth per capita and tax levies 188-191 

Relation of total cost per pupil to expenditures for 
teachers' salaries, wealth per capita and tax levies 
in the four types of schools 192 

Distribution of excessive expenditures 195-198 

Comparison of excessive expenditures in the four 

types of schools 199 



CHAPTER I 
Introduction 

Much is being written and more said concerning the limitations 
and deficiencies of the one-room district or rural school of today 
as compared with the efficiency of the township consolidated, town, 
and city schools. The question has provided subjects for many 
series of lectures, magazine articles, special reports by commissions 
and quite a number of books. All are agreed that the rural schools 
do not effectively meet the needs of country life but do not agree 
as to the changes that should be made in order that the desired 
results may be obtained. It is a case where the doctors disagree. 
One insists that the greatest need is a more modern and sanitary 
school plant, another prescribes better trained teachers, a third 
insists that an enriched course of study is the most imperative need, 
while a large percentage offer consolidation as a panacea for exist- 
ing ills since all these other things will be assured as a natural result. 

The attitude of a very large group of writers is illustrated by 
the following: 

"The retention of the small one-room school as a local institu- 
tion and as a land-mark is a worthy sentiment, but a sentiment much 
more worthy is that which would create a new rural school conse- 
crated to a new principle in education and farm life and founded 
to endure through another period of national greatness until in a 
later generation, other wise men shall rebuild the educational struc- 
ture again suited to their needs and their conditions How- 
ever useful and effective the small district was in its day, it is, in 
most localities, getting out of touch with present-day rural affairs 
and with the rural community." (G. W. Knorr — A Study of Fifteen 
Consolidated Rural Schools, p. lo.) 

In speaking of the great advantages of the consolidated school 
over the one-room rural school the same writer in another bulletin 
(No. 232, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) expresses himself as follows: 

"The advantages of the new system are obvious : The fusion of 
a number of small districts into a larger administrative unit fur- 
nishes a stable and extensive basis for financing the school and 
thereby make for higher efficiency. The school, no longer seriously 
affected by fluctuations in school population, becomes an institution 



2 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

with fixed location and belongings. An incentive is given to make 
permanent improvements, to beautify the school grounds, secure 
modern sanitation and provide ample schoolroom equipment. The 
large number of children assembled at a centrally located school 
makes possible graded classes and a better division of the school 
day. Studies can be introduced which require special equipment 
and specially trained teachers, such as agriculture, home economics, 
manual training, music — advantages almost unattainable in small 
district schools. These centrally located country-life schools, too, 
form convenient social centers for communities ; local interests 
and activities affiliated with the schools, so that public use is fre- 
quently made of their commodious classrooms or auditoriums. 
Encouragement is given to the growth of literary and debating 
societies, social and agricultural clubs, grange meetings, reading 
circles, athletic and other competitives among pupils, and entertain- 
ments of various kinds It was assimilated into the 

rural-school system as a result of observation and careful experi- 
ment, and fortunately lacked every element of a fad. It gains a 
foothold chiefly where civic ambition and high educational ideals 
establish high standards and determine to attain them." 

Another writer (See The American Rural School by Foght) 
speaks of the efficiency of urban schools as follows : 

"Graded schools, in cities and villages alike, have reached a 
stage of development or evolution so satisfactory that their future 

is practically assured Secondary and higher education 

within our country have attained a satisfactory degree of excellency 
and efficiency." 

While such generalizations as those quoted above may be true, 
they certainly would be given much greater consideration if based 
on something more than general observations. Furthermore, there 
seemed to be a tendency, and it still prevails to a certain extent, 
to assume that the city school has reached a high degree of perfec- 
tion and is the standard by which the efficiency of the rural school 
is to be measured. If a rural school imitates the city school to a 
large extent in its organization and practices it is considered pro- 
gressive and worthy of great commendation. 

In the beginning of a new movement it is always necessary to 
theorize concerning the probable results, and in this regard the 
consolidated school is no exception. This, however, should not 
continue longer than is necessary for educational practice in har- 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 3 

mony with the advanced theories to have continued for a sufficiently 
long period to provide data for a study of the results. The con- 
solidated school has been in existence long enough to justify itself 
on this basis. If an investigation clearly shows that the consolidated 
school, on account of its organization and administration, is a much 
more efficient institution for the training of children than the one- 
room rural school and that the results of this better training are 
manifested through improved economic and social conditions of the 
community, there is no need for further discussion of the question ; 
it is a time for decisive action. If, on the other hand, these results 
are lacking or are not sufficiently in evidence to offset the objec- 
tions to consolidation, it means that there must be a more intensive 
study of the situation before the problems of rural education are 
solved satisfactorily. 

With the development of the statistical and survey methods of 
investigation have come a number of studies which bear more or 
less directly on the problems of the rural schools. One of the most 
recent and intensive of these and one that is devoted entirely to 
rural education is that made by Dr. Burnham. (See his Two Types 
of Rural Schools. ) In this he gives a careful survey of the economic 
and social conditions of the communities in which the schools are 
located before attempting an intensive study of the schools. His 
conclusions indicate that some of the generalizations concerning 
the merits of the consolidated schools based on general impressions 
are not well founded. This study is especially valuable in two 
respects, (a) It presents correlated data concerning the two types 
of rural schools, (b) The tables showing the relative standing of 
the two communities economically and socially, fail to reveal any 
pronounced advancement of the community in which the consoli- 
dated schools are located over the communities in which there are 
only the one-room rural school. In order to obtain perfectly 
reliable data, however, concerning the relative influence of the two 
types of schools on the community life, it would be necessary to 
secure correlated data for a period of years. 

When considering one type of schools alone, it is difficult to 
estimate the true value of the different phases of the work. In 
order to see things in their true relationship it is necessary to have 
some basis for comparison. For example, one may emphasize the 
fact that a teacher in a consolidated school has only one grade to 
teach, but fail to observe that a pupil in the one-room rural school 



4 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

is given more individual attention and has a greater opportunity 
to exercise his own initiative and originality. The same difficulty, 
in a little more complex form, is present when the rural situation 
is considered apart from the conditions and practices in the urban 
schools. There is a tendency to over-emphasize the deficiencies of 
the one and the excellencies of the other. While recognizing the fact 
that both the rural and urban schools have problems that are pecu- 
liarly their own, it is also true that in dealing with many of the 
larger phases of the work a comparative study is profitable. Such 
a comparative study will not only aid in seeing the rural situation 
in proper perspective, but may correct some of the misconceptions 
and reveal some of the needs of the urban schools. 

Purpose 

The efficiency of a school may be tested in two ways : either on 
a basis of results as seen in increased attendance, advanced standing 
of its graduates and the improved social conditions of the commu- 
nity in which the school is located, or on a basis of relative efficiency 
of the various parts of the organization and thus judge the efficiency 
of the whole as an institution for the right training of children. 
This study will approach the situation from the latter point of view, 
presenting correlated data of the four types of schools, the one- 
room township district school, the township consolidated school, 
the village or town school, and the city school of Indiana. An effort 
will be made to present correlated data that will reveal the exact 
condition of these four types of schools with reference to school 
plants, teachers, school population, attendance, curricula, super- 
vision, revenue and expenditures, and to determine: — 

(i) To what extent do the facts substantiate the claims 

made by the advocates for consolidation. 

(2) Which of the advantages gained by consolidation are 
limited to this type of organization. 

(3) To what extent is the present plan of organization and 
administration of consolidated schools applicable to the rural 
situation. 

(4) The essentials in the reorganization and administration 
of all rural and town schools to insure equality of opportunity 
for all children of school age. 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 5 

Selection and Distribution of School Corporations 
Great care was taken to insure a random selection of the school 
corporations considered and to include only such schools as would 
clearly fall within the limitations of the four types indicated above. 
School corporations from twenty-five of the ninety-two counties 
of Indiana were selected as follows : It was first determined in 
what counties of the state were located consolidated schools that 
provided educational facilities for all of the children of the town- 
ship (the township being the unit of taxation and administration), 
and were not united with the schools of a village or town. From 
such counties data were obtained for one township in which were 
only one-room rural schools, the township or townships in which 
there was complete consolidation in one or two buildings, the one 
town whose population was nearest one thousand, and a city, pro- 
vided its population was greater than twenty-five hundred and did 
not exceed twenty thousand, if there were any such town and city 
within the county. The township selected was the first in each 
county, taken alphabetically, that met the required conditions, 
namely, that had only one-room district schools and had no town 
or city within its limits. (Two exceptions were discovered after 
the data were collected and work well under way. Such cases were 
omitted if exceptional in any respect.) In some cases where there 
were only a few schools in this township, a second was taken, in 
which case the last township on the list that met the requirements 
was selected. Since there were so few townships within the state 
in which the consolidated schools met the above conditions, it was 
found advisable to include the two townships that met the require- 
ments in two counties and the three in the third. In all other cases 
not more than one township with consolidated schools is taken from 
any county. It sometimes happened that the records on file in the 
county offices were incomplete so that it was not possible to get the 
desired data for the towns and cities. In such cases the writer 
selected the nearest town or city in an adjoining county. The dis- 
tribution of the counties in which are located the consolidated 
schools is quite wide, extending to almost every part of the state 
except the extreme northeastern and southern parts, though a 
greater number are to be found in the middle half than in the 
northern and southern fourths combined. In addition to the coun- 
ties which had one or more townships with consolidated schools, 
a number of other counties were selected, so that the total number 



6 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

of counties included in the study are as nearly equally distributed 
throughout the state as it is possible to select them. Only in cases 
of counties with consolidated schools do any two selected have a 
common boundary line. 

Original Data 

The first effort to secure the data for this study was made during 
the summer of 191 1 while the writer was teaching in the Summer 
School of Indiana University. A blank, somewhat simpler in form 
than the one given below, was given at the close of the term, to 
members of classes in Secondary Education and sent to friends and 
fellow students who were located in the different counties through- 
out the state. The returns received varied so greatly and some were 
so incomplete that it was thought best to discard all except the 
returns from three counties. This experience was sufficient to show 
that any form of a questionnaire method would be inadequate for 
an investigation of this kind. The summer of 1912 and some time 
during the summer of 19 13 was spent by the writer visiting cities, 
county seats, towns, and a few townships in the different counties, 
securing the material on which this investigation is based. The 
forms given below served as a guide in this work. 

The information concerning buildings, equipment, sanitation, 
etc., was secured, for the cities, by personal observation and con- 
ferences with city superintendents ; for towns and consolidated 
schools, by personal observation and conferences with the principals 
of the schools and county superintendents, and in a number of cases 
by correspondence as it frequently happened that the principals of 
these schools did not reside in the town or were away during the 
summer vacation ; for townships, by personal observation in a few 
cases but usually by conference with the county superintendent and 
by some correspondence with some teacher in the township. 

The information concerning teachers and supervision was se- 
cured from records in the offices of the county superintendent and 
by interviewing city, town and county superintendents. Where it 
was impossible to meet the superintendent personally the desired 
information was obtained through correspondence. 

Records in the offices of the state superintendent of public in- 
struction, county auditors, and county superintendents supplied the 
statistical and financial data. A complete transcript of the expendi- 
tures in each corporation was made and classified by the writer with 
the aid of one assistant, so that uniformity prevails throughout. 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 7 

BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT AND SANITATION 

1. Number of buildings in use? Rooms in use? 

2. Number of rooms heated by means of — 

a. Stoves? b. Stoves with jackets or screens? .. 

c. Furnace? d. Steam? e. Hot w^ater? 

f. Direct - indirect system? 

3. Number of rooms ventilated by means of — 

a. Doors and windows only? b. Some form of gravity 

system? c. Fan or force system? 

4. Number of rooms lighted by windows on — 

a. One side only? b. Two adjacent sides? 

c. Two opposite sides? d. Three sides? 

5. Number of rooms furnished with — 

a. Single non-adjustable desks? b. Single adjustable 

desks? c. Double non-adjustable desks? 

d. Double adjustable desks? 

6. Number of buildings at which water is provided by means of — 

a. Pail and common drinking cup? b. Pail and individual 

drinking cups? c. Pump or faucet and common 

cup? d. Pump or faucet and individual cups? 

e. Drinking fountains? 

7. Decorations. 

a. How often are the walls redecorated? 

b. V/hat per cent of the rooms are provided with pictures? 

At public expense? Through efforts of teachers and 

pupils? 

8. Sanitation. 

a. How often is the furniture and woodwork washed? 

b. How often are all marks, carvings, etc., removed and furniture 
revamished? c. How often are the rooms disinfected? 

d. Are floors kept clean by means of a broom? Oil and 

brush? Mop? Vacuum cleaning system? 

e. Are toilets inside or outside of school building? Sanitary 

or unsanitary? Are they free from marks, carvings, etc.? 

9. Libraries. 

a. Have you a public library maintained at public expense? 

b. Have j^ou a library in school? Maintained at public 

expense? Through efforts of teacher and pupils? 

c. In what subjects have you supplementary books? 

TEACHERS 
Number of — 

Men teaching in Women teaching in Total in 

Grades Grades Grades 

High School High School High School 

Special Special Special 



8 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

GRADE TEACHERS 
Number of years (or weeks) 
Name Teaches in Present Normal College Experi- Daily Class A, 

what Position Training Training ence salary B or C 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 



HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 



SPECIAL TEACHERS 



ADMINISTRATORS AND SUPERVISORS (nOT INCLUDED ABOVE) 

I 

2 

3 

4 

SUPERVISION 

Average number of visits made by the superintendent to each room 
during the year? Average length of each visit? 

State, in order of importance, the purpose of such visitation. 

a b 

c d 

e 

Number of institutes held, in the corporation during the year? 

Teachers' meetings? Average length of each? Per cent of 

the time devoted to (a) routine work of school? (b) larger 

problems of education? Any other means of professional improve- 
ment of teachers and if so, what was nature of same? 

Do you have medical inspection other than city or county Board of 

Health? How often? Dental inspection? 

How often? 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



STUDENT AND COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 



a — What student organization or activities in school? b — Number of 
meetings of each during the year? c — Per cent of students taking part in 
each? 

a be 



Number of patrons' meetings held during the year? What 

social center activities carried on by the school and how often? 



COURSE OF STUDY 

Do you use the "State Course of Study" in the grades? In the 

high school? If not, by whom formulated? 

In what respects does it differ from the "State Course of Study"? 

Please indicate what work is done in the following subjects : — 

Tn what r,raHf.<;' ^°- °^ Lessons Average Length 

m what trades . per Week? of Periods? 

a. Music 



b. 


Drawing 


c. 


Nature-study 


d. 


Agriculture 


e. 


Manual training 


f. 


Domestic Science 


g. 


Domestic Art 


h. 


Physical culture 


i. 


School gardens 



Have you a kindergarten in your school? If so, is it a part 

of public school system or maintained by philanthropic effort? 

In what subjects do you have special supervisors? 

Definition of Terms 
Since there may be some doubt as to what is meant by the differ- 
ent types of schools mentioned, it may be well to give the chief 
characteristics of each at this time. The term "city schoor' is used 
in this study to indicate the school in centers of population varying 
from twenty-five hundred to twenty thousand. The term "town" 
in Indiana has the same meaning as the term "village" in many 
other sections of the country. While the civic organization of a 



lo A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

town is more simple than that of the city, the school organization 
is practically the same in towns where an independent school as 
well as civic corporation is maintained, except that the head of the 
school is sometimes called a principal and devotes the larger part, 
if not his entire time, to teaching. The towns included in this in- 
vestigation vary in population from five to fifteen hundred people 
and are limited to towns with independent school corporations, that 
is, not combined in any way with the organization of the township 
in which the town is located. 

The unit of administration in rural affairs is the township or 
what is called "town" in some states such as Massachusetts and 
Wisconsin. The size of the township varies greatly, but the average 
area will be a little larger than the congressional township but the 
boundary lines by no means coincide with the boundary lines of the 
congressional township. The term "township consolidated school" 
is used to indicate the one centrally located school ; sometimes there 
are more than one in a township, to which all the children of the 
township are transported, thus abandoning the one-room schools of 
that township. Only townships with complete consolidation are 
included in this study, since it would complicate matters very ma- 
terially to include townships which have one or more one-room 
schools in addition to a consolidated school, since the township is 
the basis for statistical and financial reports and no distinction is 
made between the two types. 

The Organisation and Administrative System 

The schools of Indiana are more centralized than in many states. 
The head of the system is the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion who is elected by popular vote and holds office for two years. 
The state superintendent and the state board of education, composed 
of the governor of the state, the state superintendent of public in- 
struction, the president of the state university, the president of 
Purdue University, the president of the state normal school, the 
superintendents of the three largest city schools in the state and 
three citizens prominent in educational affairs, one of whom shall 
be a county superintendent, exercise control over the schools of 
the state. 

While the state superintendent has jurisdiction over all the 
schools of the state it has been the practice of many superintendents 
to give much greater attention to rural school problems and thus 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 1 1 

leave the city school problems to be worked out by the city school 
superintendent in his own way. Exceptions to this general state- 
ment occur when the state superintendent is emphasizing industrial 
education, sanitation, medical inspection, and other movements that 
affect both rural and urban schools. The problems the state super- 
intendent wishes to be considered by teachers and school officials 
are brought to their attention by means of bulletins, reports, insti- 
tute outlines, and through city and county superintendents. 

The county superintendent has supervision over all the schools 
of his cotmty except those located in cities and towns which main- 
tain independent school corporations. The duties of the county 
superintendent specified by law are somewhat limited, consisting 
of holding examinations, granting county certificates, visiting all 
the schools of the county under his supervision at least once each 
year, making out a success grade for each teacher, conducting county 
and township institutes, making reports to the county board of 
commissioners and the state superintendent concerning educational 
matters in his county. The influence of the county superintendents 
varies greatly. Some are little more than clerks attending to the 
routine work of the office, while others, through their leadership 
and authority by virtue of their office, exercise much greater control 
and do much constructive work. 

The city school is administered by a board of school trustees 
composed of three members appointed by the city council. This 
board employs the superintendent, principals and teachers, levies 
taxes, purchases supplies, determines when school shall open and 
the length of the school year, may uphold or rescind the action of 
the superintendent in the administration of the schools, etc. In 
many cities the superintendent is given great freedom in many of 
these matters as well as in determining the internal workings of the 
school. The tendency of the board in a few of the larger cities is 
to consider the superintendent an expert and competent to direct the 
work of the school in all its details and merely concern itself with 
the larger problems referred to them by the superintendent and 
with financial affairs. Unfortunately this attitude is not general. 
The smaller the city the more jealous the school board is of its 
prerogatives. 

The administration of the town school is very similar to that 
of the city except that it is more simple and that the head of the 
school is little more than a regular teacher. He usually has nothing 



12 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

to say in school affairs except in mere routine matters such as 
making out the schedule, attending to problems of discipline, etc. 

The rural township schools, whether consolidated or one-room, 
are under the administration of the township trustee who has the 
three-fold duty of administration of schools, caring for the poor 
and looking after all public highways except macadam roads which 
are under the supervision of the county commissioners. School 
affairs require the greater portion of the time that is devoted to his 
official duties. He is responsible for the building of new school 
houses, keeping old buildings in repair, purchasing equipment and 
supplies, employing teachers, levying taxes, etc. The number of 
schools under the jurisdiction of the township trustee varies from 
one consolidated school with four teachers or three or four one- 
room schools to a number of consolidated schools with commis- 
sioned high schools or a great number of one-room schools. In 
some cases a trustee employs as many as four superintendents or 
principals of consolidated schools and thirty or more teachers. It 
should be added that the law provides for the election of a school 
director by the voters of a school district, who shall look after the 
repairing of the building, provide fuel, visit schools, suspend or 
expel incorrigible pupils, etc. If the voters of the district fail to 
elect such a school director at the time specified the trustee is to 
appoint some one in the district to fill this office. In actual practice, 
however, few such directors are to be found in the state, as the 
township trustee prefers to attend to all these matters himself. It 
gives him a certain prestige and an opportunity to increase his 
salary, but it may also mean economy to the township and a more 
equal distribution of funds for repairs and supplies. 

Briefly summarized, Indiana has a state system of schools under 
the direction of the state superintendent of public instruction and 
state board of education. The smaller units of administration under 
the state organization in certain respects, are the city, town, and 
the county. The schools of cities and towns are administered by 
boards of school trustees and superintendents elected by them. The 
rural schools of the county are under the supervision of the county 
superintendent; the county, in turn, is divided into smaller units 
called townships for administrative purposes. At the head of each 
township is the township trustee. All financial and statistical re- 
ports of townships, towns, and cities are filed v^ith the county super- 
intendent who in turn compiles a report for the entire county which 
is forwarded to the state department. 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 13 

Statistical Methods Employed 

In making tabulations and computations, an effort has been made 
to use methods that are fair to all types of schools considered and 
to avoid technicalities as far as possible. In all tables that follow, 
except the first, it will be observed that the original data are given, 
followed by tables derived from the same that will give an adequate 
basis for comparison. 

The average and median are used to indicate the central tenden- 
cies and the average deviation and quartile to express variabilities. 
The median, M, is a measure above and below which exactly fifty 
per cent of the cases lie. In data with fairly normal distribution in 
which we wish to retain the influence of all cases and to give due 
consideration to variations in the size of cases included, the average 
is a better index of the true character of each measure and was 
about as readily determined as the median, since computations were 
made by use of machines, mathematical tables, and slide rule 
wherever possible. The mean or average deviation, A D, is the 
sum of the deviations of the individual measures from the central 
tendency divided by the number of cases. The quartile, Q, was 
used more extensively than the average deviation. This is found 
by counting in from the lower end of the distribution twenty-five 
per cent of the cases and counting in from the higher end of the dis- 
tribution twenty-five per cent of the cases. The two points found 
mark the limits of the middle fifty per cent, which is always a fairer 
index of characteristic groups than the total range of cases. Sub- 
tracting the lower from the higher value found and dividing the 
difference by two gives the quartile or variability in terms of unit 
of measure. Any individual case will probably fall within the limits 
of this variability when applied both above and below the median 
or average. Any reader wishing more detailed information con- 
cerning the statistical methods is referred to Thorndike's Mental 
and Social Measurements, or to Rusk's Experimental Education. 



CHAPTER II 

School Plants 

It is somewhat difficult to find a basis for comparison of school 
plants that will not give a wrong impression of one or more of the 
types considered. The most common basis used has been the valua- 
tion of school property. In some cases attempts have been made to 
give valuation statistics meaning by showing the amount of money 
per capita school population is invested in school property. It is 
needless to say that these valuation statistics as given in most 
reports are of little value since the estimates are made by a great 
number of individuals with different attitudes and ideals of values, 
and with no common basis for judgment. Neither is there much, 
if any, relationship between the amount of money invested and 
ability of the corporation to pay ; nor does it necessarily follow that 
a large expenditure means better accommodations and more modern 
conveniences. A very striking illustration of the last fact mentioned 
was observed in one of the towns of the state in which the school 
board, or rather one of the members who dominated the board, 
erected an expensive building according to his own architectural 
ideas and pecuniary inclinations. Some objections were made by 
members of the community which reached the state board of health. 
The result was, the building was condemned and had to be recon- 
structed before it could be used for school purposes. 

From an educational point of view it is worth a great deal more 
to make a comparison on the basis of conformity to scientific 
principles of hygiene and sanitation than on the basis of valuation. 
The data hereafter presented were collected with this idea in mind. 
Most of the items call for information that could be given by anyone 
familiar with the situation with little variation on account of indi- 
vidual standards or bias, hence are fairly reliable. One or two 
items permit of some variation but are included to show tendencies 
rather than to give accurate information on the subject involved. 
The per cent basis has been used in all the tabulations so that 
comparisons may be made with little difficulty. The sum of all the 
items under each general heading such as "heating", etc., for each 
corporation or type of school equals one hundred per cent except 
under sanitation in which case there is an over-lapping since a 
number of schools reported two or more methods used in cleaning 
floors. After the complete tabulations of the data for the four 
types of schools studied will be found a table showing the summary 
and relative standings of the township district, township consoli- 
dated, town, and city schools. 



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[26] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 27 

The foregoing summary is almost self-explanatory. It reveals at 
once that the predominating type of school buildings for township 
district schools is the small rectangular structure with the entrance 
at one end, lighted on opposite sides and heated by a common wood 
or coal stove located in the center of the room. It is needless to 
say that in such buildings there are no ventilating systems ; and it 
may be added that none are needed in many of them since the 
openings about the doors and windows and the holes in the ceilings 
provide adequate circulation of air. The heating problem is a more 
vital one in cold weather. Another type of one-room buildings for 
rural schools is a slight modification of the type described above. 
Instead of the entrance being at the end and directly into the school- 
room, it is at one side which makes it necessary for the pupils to 
pass through a small cloakroom before entering the schoolroom 
proper. These buildings are usually lighted on three sides but in 
all other respects they are very similar to the small rectangular 
buildings. 

A few of the newer buildings, however, reveal the fact that this 
old type of architecture is passing away and that an effort is being 
made in some localities to construct buildings on a more scientific 
plan. Two buildings in one township were constructed on plans 
approved by the secretary of the state board of health. The build- 
ings were provided with basements in which were a furnace room, 
a fuel room, and a play room. These buildings were lighted on one 
side only. The cloakrooms were lighted and heated also. The 
furnace took the air from the outside of the building so that there 
was good ventilation. In all respects they were quite modern. Such 
buildings show that it is possible to construct one-room buildings 
on hygienic and sanitary principles as well;as the larger consolidated 
school buildings. 

Since the movement for consolidated schools is comparatively 
recent, it is to be expected that the buildings will be more modern 
than found in the township district schools. In fact the difference 
is so great that there is little basis for comparison in methods of 
heating and ventilating. By referring to Table v it will be observed 
that the buildings for consolidated schools more nearly conform to 
the established standards for heating, lighting, and ventilating than 
do the city school buildings and are decidedly superior to those found 
in the towns. The consolidated schools are provided with twice as 
many adjustable seats as the city schools and nearly three times as 



1 


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A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 31 

many as the town schools, while very few adjustable seats are to 
be found in the township district schools. No double seats are to 
be found in the consolidated schools while a few are to be found 
in city schools, usually in some remote one-room building. Seven 
per cent in town schools and about twenty-nine per cent in the 
township district schools are equipped with desks of this type. The 
table shows that about twenty per cent of the township district 
schools are provided with sanitary drinking facilities as compared 
with seventy per cent of the consolidated schools, seventy-eight 
per cent of the town schools and eighty-one per cent of the city 
schools. 

The data concerning decorations are not so reliable as that which 
we have been considering but indicate that little or no attention is 
given to the walls in sixty-seven per cent of the township district 
schools and fifty-two per cent of the town schools as compared with 
forty-one per cent of the township consolidated schools and twenty 
per cent of the city schools. Very few pictures are to be found in 
the township district schools and it is only in the city schools that 
the matter is considered of sufficient importance to lead the school 
officials to appropriate public funds for the purchase of pictures. 
Practically the entire expense for pictures in town, consolidated, 
and township district schools is met by the efforts of the teachers 
and pupils. All except about ten per cent of the township district 
schools are provided with school libraries. The most that can be 
said from the data at hand is that some attention is being given to 
reading outside of textbooks. It may be safely added from general 
observation that the libraries in all except the larger city schools 
consist, for the most part, of books selected from the Young Peo- 
ple's Reading Circle and a few reference books in the high school 
subjects. In the matter of public support of libraries it will be 
observed that the town schools rank lowest with twenty-two per 
cent of the cost of maintenance being borne by the public as com- 
pared with thirty-one per cent in the township district schools, 
forty-three per cent in the consolidated schools, and sixty-nine per 
cent in the city schools. Few supplementary books are to be found 
in the one-room rural schools, while the consolidated and town 
schools rank about the same in this regard and the city schools are 
fairly well supplied. Reading is the one subject for which supple- 
mentary books are most frequently reported. History ranks second 
and geography third. 



32 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

The data concerning sanitation reveals nothing new in regard 
to the township district schools but show that there is room for 
decided improvement along some lines in both the town and city 
schools. The township district buildings are usually cleaned just 
before the opening of school at which time the floors are scrubbed 
and the woodwork washed, but little or no effort is made to remove 
the marks, carvings, etc., from the desks. This one cleaning ends 
the efforts for the year unless there is an epidemic in the school in 
which case the building is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. 
Some of the floors are oiled at the beginning of the school year and 
some form of "dustdown" and brush is used in ten per cent of the 
buildings, while the broom continues to hold sway in all other build- 
ings. Only thirteen per cent of the toilets are reported as sanitary 
and sixteen per cent free from marks and carvings. Much more 
consideration is given sanitation in the consolidated schools than in 
the rural schools just considered. Thirty-five per cent of the con- 
solidated school buildings are cleaned more frequently than once 
each year ; twenty-five per cent of the desks are kept free from all 
marks and carving and an effort is made in sixty-three per cent of 
the buildings to clean the floors by some method that will eliminate 
the dust. Fifty-three per cent of the toilets of the consolidated 
schools are located within the buildings, which indicates that these 
buildings have water systems of their own which provide water 
for all school purposes. Usually these buildings are equipped with 
gasoline engines which are used to run the ventilating systems dur- 
ing the regular school hours and to pump water into pressure tanks 
at other times when needed. This is an excellent showing when 
compared with what we find in the town schools where only forty 
per cent of toilets are located within the school buildings. Sixty- 
five per cent are reported as sanitary in the consolidated schools as 
compared with forty per cent in the town schools. Fifty-nine per 
cent are free from all marks and carvings as compared with fifty- 
two per cent in the town schools and forty-nine per cent in the city 
schools. 

Recent Legislation 

Prior to 191 1 there was little direct legislation concerning the 
sanitation of school buildings though some control was exercised 
by the state and county boards of health. The assembly of 191 1- 
191 2 passed a number of law^s requiring all buildings erected or 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 33 

remodeled to be constructed according to certain hygienic and sani- 
tary specifications. A digest of these laws is given after which an 
effort will be made to show how these laws will affect the different 
types of schools we have been considering. 

Sites. The sites shall be dry and well drained ; not nearer than 
500 feet to a railroad, livery, or other stable used for breeding pur- 
poses, or "any noise-making industry, or any unhealthful condition". 
Dry walks from street or road to school building and to all out- 
buildings and suitable playgrounds must be provided. 

Buildings. If it is a brick building it shall have a foundation of 
stone or a layer of non-absorbing material above the ground line. 
Every two-story school building shall have a well-lighted basement 
with concrete floor and a ceiling not less than ten feet high, under 
the entire building. The ground floor must be at least three feet 
above the ground level and the area between the ground and floor 
well ventilated. Each pupil shall be provided with not less than 275 
cubic feet of space and the interior walls painted or tinted some 
natural color as gray, slate, buff, or green. 

Lighting. All schoolrooms used for study shall be lighted on 
one side only and the glass area shall not be less than one-sixth of 
floor area and the windows shall extend from not less than four 
feet from the floor to at least one foot from the ceiling. All win- 
dows shall be provided with adjustable shades of natural color. 

Seating. Adjustable seats and desks are recommended and 
twenty per cent in each room required to be adjustable. They shall 
be so arranged that the light will fall over the left shoulder of 
right-handed pupils and over the right shoulder of left-handed 
pupils. 

Blackboards. Blackboards shall be preferably of slate, but of 
whatever material, the color shall be a dead black. 

Cloakrooms. Wtell-lighted, warmed and ventilated cloakrooms, 
or sanitary lockers, shall be provided for each study schoolroom. 

Water Supply. All school houses shall be provided with pure 
drinking water which shall be supplied from driven wells or other 
source, approved by the health authorities. Only smooth stout glass 
or enameled metal cups shall be used. All pumps shall be supplied 
with drains to take away the waste water. No pools shall be allowed 
about the well. Water buckets and tin drinking cups are unlawful 
and forbidden. Drinking fountains are recommended and required 
if practicable. "When water is not supplied at pumps or water 



34 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

faucets or sanitary drinking fountains, then covered tanks or coolers 
supplied with spring or self-closing faucet shall be provided." 
(A later law prohibits the use of common drinking cups.) 

Heating and Ventilating. Ventilating heating stoves, furnaces 
and heaters of all kinds shall be capable of maintaining a tempera- 
ture of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero weather and of maintaining 
a relative humidity of at least forty per cent. All heaters shall take 
air from outside the building and after heating, introduce it into 
the schoolroom at a point not less than five feet nor more than seven 
feet from the floor and at a minimum rate of thirty cubic feet per 
minute for each pupil, regardless of outside conditions. (An ex- 
ception is made for the direct-indirect system of heating.) All halls, 
cloakrooms, laboratories, etc., must be heated. Direct steam heat- 
ing is forbidden. All rooms must be provided with ventilating ducts 
of ample size to withdraw the air at least four times every, hour 
and said ducts must be on the same side of the room with the hot 
air ducts. 

Toilets. Water-closets or dry closets when provided shall be 
efficient and sanitary in every respect, detailed specification being 
given. Good dry walks shall lead to all outhouses. Screen or 
shields must be provided. 

Cleaning and Disinfecting. All school houses shall be well 
cleaned and disinfected each year before they are used for school 
purposes. The cleaning shall consist in first sweeping, then scrub- 
bing the floors, washing the windows and wooden parts of seats 
and desks. The disinfecting shall be done in accordance with the 
rules of the state board of health. 

The penalty for the violation of above law is a fine in any sum 
not less than one hundred dollars and not more than five hundred 
dollars; and any money claim for material entering into or any 
money claim for the construction of any schoolhouse, which does 
not in every way and in all respects comply with the requirements 
specified, shall be null and void. 

A graphic representation of the extent to which the present 
school plants in the different types of school corporations measure 
up to the requirements summarized above is given in Figure i. It 
will be observed that the buildings for consolidated schools equal 
or surpass buildings for all other types in all requirements except 
water supply and toilets and second only to cities in these particu- 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 35 

lars. In the one item, that of lighting, in which all schools of each 
type might have been made to measure up to hygienic requirements 
without additional expense is the one in which all show greatest 
deficiency. The enforcement of these laws will result in a radical 
change in the architecture for rural schools. 



V 



^ ^ 



6.4 a 

99.1 b 
81.9 c 

94.6 d 

9. a 

91.2 b 

67.3 c 

92.7 d 

4.4 a 
26.9 b 
27.9 c 

^ 19. d 

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93. S b 
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a I 



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Figure i. A chart showing what per cent of the schools of each type studied, 
measure up to the standard set by recent legislation. a — township district schools; 
b — township consolidated schools; c — town schools; d — city schools. 

[36] 



CHAPTER III 

Distribution of Teachers on Basis of Sex, Training, Experi- 
ence, AND Salary 

While the only true measure of efficiency of the teaching force 
of a school system is to be determined by testing the results before 
and after a period of instruction, we do know, as has been 
shown by investigations that have been made, that there is a corre- 
lation between the training and experience of the teachers in a 
system of schools and the ability of these teachers to do effective 
work. It will be necessary, however, before attempting to give the 
distribution of teachers on basis of training, experience, and salary, 
in the four types of schools studied, to indicate briefly the condi- 
tions and legislation that have led to the present situation in order 
to have a basis for a rational interpretation of the facts presented. 

Prior to 1894 no academic or professional training was required 
of teachers other than the ability to pass an examination in the 
"Common School Branches" and "Theory and Art of Teaching". 
It was no unusual occurrence for a boy or girl from the common 
or elementary school, to study the "Teachers' Reading Circle" books 
on which the questions in theory and art of teaching were based, 
and to pass an examination which permitted him or her to teach 
in the elementary schools of the state without having had any train- 
ing beyond the eighth grade. There was a law requiring applicants 
to be eighteen years of age before they could be granted a certifi- 
cate, but it was no unusual thing to find beginning teachers who 
were only sixteen and seventeen years of age. Before any legisla- 
tive measures had been enacted requiring teachers to have had some 
academic and professional training, some county superintendents 
attempted to raise the standard of scholarship of the teachers by 
being more stringent in grading the manuscripts of applicants for 
certificates and thus caused beginning as well as experienced teach- 
ers to attend some normal school or college during the spring or 
summer terms. In a similar manner some of the more aggressive 
city superintendents encouraged many of their teachers to attend 
the summer sessions of normal schools and colleges by promises of 
promotion' and increase of salaries on the one hand, or threatened 
dismissal on the other, but such efforts were spasmodic and not 
far-reaching. Under these conditions the natural result was that 



38 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

the cities with their longer terms of school, better conditions for 
work and higher salaries, would have a larger and superior group 
from which to select their teachers than the schools in the rural 
communities. 

The first step to remedy the situation was taken in 1898 by the 
passage of a minimum salary law whereby the salary a teacher 
received was determined by the grade of certificate held. The grade 
of certificate of a beginning teacher was determined by scholarship 
alone, while that of an experienced teacher was determined by 
scholarship and a "success grade" given by county or city superin- 
tendent. A teacher holding a twelve months' certificate received a 
salary per diem equal to two and one- fourth cents multiplied by the 
average scholarship attained in all subjects in which the teacher 
was required to pass an examination, or in the case of an experi- 
enced teacher, the salary per diem was determined by multiplying 
two and one-fourth cents by his general average, that is the average 
of average scholarship and "success grade". A teacher holding a 
twenty- four months' certificate received a salary per diem equal 
to two and one-half cents multiplied by his general average, and a 
teacher holding a thirty-six months' certificate received a daily 
salary equal to two and three-fourths cents multiplied by his gen- 
eral average. The effect of this legislation was to eliminate the 
six-months' or trial license on which many beginning teachers had 
been teaching and to stimulate scholastic attainment among all 
teachers. It also caused the rural teachers to be paid the same 
salary per month as the city teachers since very few cities paid 
more at that time than the minimum salary specified by law. 

A higher scholastic attainment and more specific professional 
training was required of all teachers by the law that went into 
effect in 1907, and at the same time the minimum salary was in- 
creased. All young men and women wishing to enter the teaching 
profession after this date were required to have had an academic 
training equivalent to a four year high school course and to have 
had at least twelve weeks of specified professional training before 
being eligible to write for a certificate. All candidates who met 
the above requirements and passed an examination in the common 
school subjects and the theory and art of teaching, which entitled 
them to a twelve months' certificate, were in class A and received 
a salary per diem equal to two and one-half cents multiplied by 
average scholarship, or by general average, in the case of an experi- 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 39 

enced teacher. All teachers, who in addition to the requirements 
for class A, had had one year of successful experience, an addi- 
tional twelve weeks of professional training and held a twenty-four 
months' certificate were in class B, and received a salary per diem 
equal to three cents multiplied by their general average. Teachers 
who were graduates from schools maintaining a professional course 
for training of teachers, had had three or more years of successful 
experience and passed an examination which entitled them to a 
thirty-six months' certificate, were in class C and received as the 
minimum salary per diem, the amount equal to three and one-half 
cents multiplied by their general average. 

With this brief survey of the requirements that obtained for all 
schools, a presentation of the facts concerning sex, training, ex- 
perience, salary, and classification of the teachers in each type of 
schools is given followed by some inferences that may be made 
from the same. Table vi shows the number, sex, professional 
training, experience and salaries of teachers in the rural schools 
of each township included in this study. For example, in township 
number one, there were five teachers employed, three of whom 
were men and two were women ; two had had twelve weeks and 
three had had one year of professional training ; one was a begin- 
ning teacher, that is, had had no experience ; one had had one year ; 
one ten years ; one fourteen years ; and one fifteen years of ex- 
perience. Two of the five teachers were in class A with an average 
daily salary of $2.00; two in class B with an average salary of 
$2.92 ; and one in class C with a daily salary of $3.46. Tables vii, 
VIII, and IX, giving data for consolidated, town and city schools, 
are to be read in the same way. 

At first it was thought advisable to distribute the salaries of 
all teachers and to determine the central tendency and mean varia- 
tion of the whole group, but it was found that such a method would 
result in a tri-modal cui-ve and that the average for each class 
would give a more reliable basis for comparison. This holds true 
in corporations where more than the minimum salary is paid, since 
the basis for the salary schedule is the classification of teachers 
according to the requirements mentioned above. There is little 
variation in the amount paid teachers in the same class in any 
corporation; so that the average salary of the teachers of each 
class is a fair index of all the teachers of that class. The mean 
variation is so small for any one corporation that it is almost 
negligible. 





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[46] 



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[47] 



48 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

Table x gives the distribution of grade teachers according to 
sex in each of the four types of schools considered. Ward princi- 
pals are included with the grade teachers in the cities since much 
of their time is devoted to teaching. The total number of cases 
in each type is given first, followed by the number of men and 
women and the per cent of each. 

TABLE X 

Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Sex 



School Corporation 


Total 


Men 


Women 


Per cent 
of Men 


Per cent 
of Women 


Township 

Consolidated • • 

Town . ; 

City 


296 

90 

130 

623 


102 

15 
24 
61 


194 

75 
106 
562 


34.4 
16.6 
18.5 
9.48 


65.6 

83.4 
81.5 
90.5 



It will be observed that feminization is much more pronounced 
in the city schools in which less than ten per cent of the total grade 
teaching population are men, as compared with sixteen and six- 
tenths per cent in the consolidated schools, eighteen and five-tenths 
per cent in town schools, and thirty-four and four-tenths per cent 
in the rural schools. Notwithstanding the fact that one-third of 
the rural teachers are men, fewer men are found in consolidated 
schools than in the town schools. With consolidation comes the 
feminization of the teaching population. 

Professional Preparation of Teachers 

Before summarizing the data on the training of teachers and 
attempting an analysis of the same, a brief explanation of one or 
two points is necessary. It might seem that other periods of train- 
ing than those given in the tables should be included, but when we 
keep in mind the fact that practically each period given has a legal 
significance and that all schools of Indiana which train grade 
teachers are organized on the twelve week term basis, it is readily 
understood why so few report periods of training longer or shorter 
than those called for in the table. These few cases are grouped 
with the teachers with a period of training which most nearly 
represents the training each has had. For example, if a teacher 
reported twenty weeks, that teacher was included with the group 
that has had twenty-four weeks of professional training. It is also 
necessary to keep in mind the fact that the law requiring teachers 
to have had a four year high school course or its equivalent before 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 49 



being eligible to teach, had been in force five years when the data 
for this investigation were collected, so that all teachers with five 
or less years of experience were high school graduates before 
taking the required professional training reported. Teachers with 
six or more years of experience may or may not have been high 
school graduates and may or may not have had professional train- 
ing. An effort was made to collect data relative to academic 
training of all teachers, but the reports were so incomplete as to 
render it impossible to secure detailed information that was suffi- 
cient in quantity or reliability to justify a distribution, anaylsis, 
and comparison on this basis. It is obvious that the greater the 
percentage of teachers with five or less years of experience, the 
less the percentage without academic and professional training. On 
the other hand it is probably true that from among the experienced 
teachers in the rural schools only those who have shown some 
superior natural ability would be selected for positions in the towns 
and cities ; so that the advantage gained by the rural school on 
account of the former is more than offset by the latter. 

TABLE XI 
Summary of the Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Training 



Corporation 


a 





01 


nj 
>, 

V 

6 


m 

>, 


u 
a 

V 
u 

H 


i2 

>» 

1- 
3 



1) 

3 
n 
bo 




bo 

a 

'S 

a 
u 

bo <u 

^« 


Township .... 
Consolidated . 

Town 

City 


35 
6 
6 

32 


99 
12 

13 

54 


72 
18 

25 
93 


59 
23 

47 
171 


27 

19 

26 

137 


14 

6 

18 

100 


3 

5 

4 

30 


2 


28.8 

42.0 
52.0 

55-1 



TABLE XII 
Percentile Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Training 



Corporation 


u 

a 



V 

01 


01 


1- 

C 



1^ 



H 


H 


u 
nl 

u 
3 






rt 

3 

"d 
a 

u 
be 


Ph 


bo 

a 
'S 

2 
H« 

<u u 
bo u 


Township 

Consolidated 

Town 

City 


6.7 
5.0 

5-2 


32.0 

13.5 

9-3 
8.7 


23-3 
20.2 
17.8 
150 


19. 1 

25.8 

33-5 

27.7 


8.7 
21.3 
18.5 
22.2 


4-5 

6.7 

12.8 

16.2 


•9 
5.6 
2.8 

4.8 


•03 


28.8 
42.0 
52.0 
55-1 




[50] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 51 

A summary of the training of teachers in the grades of the four 
types of schools studied is given in Tables xi and xii. The rela- 
tion of distribution of teachers in one type of schools to the 
other types is shown graphically in Figure 11. From these tables 
it is seen that there are twice as many teachers in the township 
district schools who have had no professional training as in any 
of the other types. That is to say, there are twice as many teachers 
in the rural schools of Indiana with five or more years of experience 
that have made no effort to fit themselves for the work they are 
trying to do as are found in the consolidated, town, or city schools. 

The average training of all teachers in the rural schools is 
twenty-eight and eight-tenths weeks, while the average training of 
all teachers in the consolidated schools is forty-two weeks ; of 
teachers in town schools, fifty-two weeks, and of teachers in city 
schools, fifty-five and one-tenth weeks. Teachers in the rural 
schools have had only sixty-eight and five-tenths per cent the pro- 
fessional training that teachers in the consolidated schools have 
had, fifty-five and four-tenths per cent the training of the town 
teachers, and fifty-two and three-tenths per cent the training that 
the grade teachers in cities have received. 

Experience of Teachers 

The extent to which the rural schools are made the training 
schools for teachers in other types is seen by referring to Table 
XIII. Of the total number of beginning teachers in 1912-1913 in 
the schools studied, seventy-two per cent were in the rural schools, 
eleven per cent in the city schools, nine per cent in the town schools, 
and six per cent in the consolidated schools. By taking into consid- 
eration the percentage of beginning teachers in each type, we find 
that one out of every four teachers in the rural schools has had 
no experience as compared with one in every fifteen in consolidated 
and town schools, and one in every fifty in the city schools. When 
we take into consideration the fact that there were fewer teachers 
in the township district schools in the year 1912-1913 than the 
previous year, while there was an increase in the number of teachers 
in the city schools, the facts indicated above are even more marked. 

The median number of years of experience of township district 
teachers is two and sixty-five hundredths, while the median for 
teachers in consolidated schools is five and five-tenths, for teachers 
in town schools it is six and thirteen-hundredths, and for teachers 



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[52] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 53 

in city schools it is seven. Fifty per cent of the teachers in the rural 
schools have taught one to seven years as compared with the same 
number in consolidated schools who have taught two and one-half 
to ten years. Fifty per cent of the town teachers have taught three 
to nine years, and an equal number in city schools have taught five 
to twelve years. 

The distribution of teachers in the four types of schools on 
basis of service is shown graphically in Figure iii. It will be 
observed that the curve of distribution of rural teachers is uni- 
lateral with the mode at zero. The mode for consolidated school 
teachers is three years. The curve for town teachers is bi-modal, 
one mode being at three years and the other at six years. This 
may be due to a lack of sufficient number of cases, but it will be 
observed that the mode for city school teachers falls between these 
two, being at five years, which might be inferred to indicate a point 
of greatest transition from one type to another. 

In order to compare the results of this investigation with other 
data secured by a different method, the writer took such parts of 
Dr. Coffman's tabulations (See The Social Composition of the 
Teaching Population) as pertained to Indiana and reduced them 
to the same basis as the tabulations given in this study. The com- 
parison of the results of Dr. Cofifman's investigation and the totals 
of the four types of schools as derived in this study are shown in 
Figure iv. The similarity of the two curves is quite marked. The 
variation for the first two years seems to indicate that Dr. Coffman 
had a relatively larger number of rural teachers than is included 
in this investigation. This inference will probably account for the 
fact that the median experience of all teachers included in this 
investigation, which is six and six-tenths years, is slightly higher 
than the median given by Dr. Cofifman's data, which is five and 
two-tenths years. 



TABLE XIII 

Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Experience 



Number of teachers in each 1 


Per cent of teachers in | 


All types 


All types by 






type 








each type 




combined 


CofEman 


i 


a 




1 




.2* 

IS 

1 


SI 








a 

4) 


B 

3 
15 


1 





72 


6 


9 


11 


24.5 


6.8 


6.5 


1.9 


98 


8.7 


78 


11.6 


1 


40 


10 


6 


20 


17.0 


11.4 


4.3 


3.4 


86 


7.6 


83 


12.3 


2 


37 


9 


11 


25 


12.6 


10.2 


7.9 


4.2 


82 


7.3 


61 


8.9 


3 


16 


11 


18 


40 


5.5 


12.5 


13.0 


6.7 


85 


7.5 


49 


7.2 


4 


13 


5 


14 


38 


4.4 


5.9 


10.0 


5.7 


70 


6.2 


46 


6.8 


5 


11 


3 


8 


67 


3.7 


3.4 


5.8 


11.3 


89 


7.9 


50 


7.4 


6 


12 


4 


19 


53 


4.2 


4.5 


13.8 


8.9 


88 


7.8 


44 


6.5 


7 


11 


4 


11 


40 


3.7 


4.5 


7.9 


6.7 


66 


5.9 


25 


3.7 


8 


9 


5 


5 


27 


3.1 


5.9 


3.6 


4.5 


46 


4.1 


24 


3.5 


9 


7 


5 


7 


26 


2.4 


5.9 


5.1 


4.4 


45 


4.0 


25 


3.7 


10 


11 


4 


6 


37 


3.7 


4.5 


4.3 


6.2 


58 


5.1 


30 


4.5 


11 


4 


1 


6 


20 


1.4 


1.1 


4.3 


3.4 


33 


2.9 


11 


1.6 


12 


5 


3 


4 


28 


1.7 


3.4 


2.9 


4.7 


40 


3.6 


21 


3.2 


13 


5 


2 


2 


12 


1.7 


2.3 


1.4 


2.0 


21 


1.9 


9 


1.3 


14 


4 


3 


1 


15 


1.4 


3.4 


.7 


2.5 


23 


2.0 


13 


1.9 


15 


5 


4 


2 


23 


1.7 


4.5 


1.4 


3.9 


34 


3.0 


15 


2.4 


16 


4 


1 





13 


1.4 


1.1 





2.2 


18 


1.6 


6 


.9 


17 


3 


1 





9 


1.1 


1.1 





1.5 


13 


1.2 


7 


1.0 


18 


3 


2 


1 


13 


1.1 


2.3 


.7 


2.2 


19 


1.7 


8 


1.2 


19 


2 


1 





9 


.7 


1.1 





1.5 


12 


1.1 


8 


1.2 


20 


2 


1 


2 


22 


.7 


1.1 


1.4 


3.7 


27 


2.4 


11 


1.6 


21 


1 





1 


5 


.3 





.7 


.8 


7 


.5 


3 


.4 


22 


1 





1 


4 


.3 





.7 


.7 


6 


.5 


9 


1.3 


23 


1 








4 


.3 








.7 


5 


.4 


2 


.3 


24 











4 


.0 








.7 


4 


.3 


6 


.9 


25 


4 


1 


1 


9 


1.4 


1.1 


.7 


1.5 


15 


1.3 


4 


.6 


26 


3 


2 


4 


28 


1.1 


2.3 


2.9 


4.7 


37 


3.3 


9 


1.3 



[54] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 55 



TABLE XIV 

Percentile Distribution of Teachers in Given Number of Years 
OF Experience 



Years 


Township 


Consolidated 


Town 


City 


None 


24-5 

43.2 


6.8 


6.5 
41.0 


1.9 


1-5 years 


43-4 


31-3 


6-10 years . . • • 


I7.I 


25.3 


33.7 


21.9 


II - 15 years 


7-9 


14.7 


10.7 


16.S 


16 - 20 years 


5-0 


6.7 


2.1 


II. I 


20-25 years .... 


2.3 


I.I 


2.1 


4.4 


26 and above . . . 


I.I 


2.3 


2.3 


4.7 



Notw^ithstanding the fact that the rural schools have a much 
larger percentage of beginning teachers, it will be observed that 
the number of teachers with one to five years of experience in the 
first three types is nearly the same, and that the teachers in the 
city schools with one to five years of experience is much smaller, 
but that in the longer periods of service the city has a larger per 
cent. This would seem to indicate that the migration from the rural 
schools to consolidated and town schools occurs during the first 
five years, and from the rural, consolidated and town schools to 
the city schools after, as well as during this time. 

Classification and Salaries of Teachers 

TABLE XV 

Summary of Classification and Distribution of Teachers on Basis 
OF Salaries Received 



Corporation 


Total 
A 


Numbers 
B C 


Per cents 
ABC 


Salaries 
ABC 


Township 

Consolidated 

Town 

City 


141 

19 
21 

52 


83 

30 

60 

168 


72 

40 

47 

373 


47.6 28.0 24.3 

21. 1 33-3 45.5 

16.4 46.8 36.7 

9.8 31.5 58.7 


$2.36 $2.88 $3.36 
2.50 2.91 3.53 
2.65 2.94 3.56 
2.53 3.06 3.58 



From the previous table it is to be expected that there would 
be a much larger per cent of class A teachers in the rural schools 
than in any other type. The consolidated schools rank second. 
Notwithstanding the fact that the consolidated schools had about 
the same per cent of inexperienced teachers as the towns, according 
to Table xv, the towns have a much smaller per cent of class A 
teachers which indicates that a smaller per cent of experienced 
teachers in the consolidated schools have met the scholastic and 
professional training necessary for promotion to a higher class. 
On the whole the consolidated schools with forty-five and five-tenths 



56 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



per cent of class C and thirty-three and three-tenths per cent of 
class B teachers outrank the town schools with thirty-six and 
seven-tenths per cent of class C teachers and forty-six and eight- 
tenths per cent of class B teachers. 

The general effect of the legislation concerning the minimum 
salary and professional training of teachers has been to cause a 
gradual increase in the salaries of teachers in all types of schools, 
especially the rural schools. By taking the reports of the state 
superintendent of public instruction for the years 1904 and 1910 
and computing the average salary for all teachers in each type as 
tabulated in this investigation, we get the following results which 
verify the above statement : 

TABLE XVI 
Average Salary of All Grade Teachers in Each Type of Schools Com- 
pared WITH Amounts Received in 1904 and 1910 





Township 


Consolidated 


Town 


City 


1904 (report) 

1910 (report) ....••.. 
1912 (this investigation) 


$2.36 
2.62 

2.75 


2.97 
3.10 


$2.69 

311 
3-12 


$3-05 
314 
3-34 



It would seem that teachers in the same class should receive the 
same salary, regardless of the type of schools in which they teach. 
The fact that class A teachers in the rural schools receive on an 
average only two dollars and thirty-six cents per day, while teachers 
in the same class in the consolidated schools receive two dollars 
and fifty cents per day and the teachers in the towns and cities 
even a greater amount, may be due to one of two reasons. It may 
be due to the fact that the township trustees usually pay only the 
minimum amount called for by law even to a fraction of a cent, 
while the officials in the other schools are governed only in a general 
way by the minimum salary law and may pay even a little more 
than this amount, or it may be due to the fact that the general 
average of all teachers in each class in the rural schools is lower 
than in the other types. 

The minimum salary law has affected the distribution of teachers 
in another way. It is a frequent occurrence for township trustees, 
on account of a false notion of economy, to refuse to employ any 
but class A teachers, while officials in other schools, especially of 
city schools, emphasize the fact that they want only class C 
teachers. 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 57 

High School Teachers 

The legislation, a summary of which was given above, has 
to do almost entirely with grade teachers. Beginning high school 
teachers, however, must have had the professional training equiva- 
lent to that required for class A before entering the profession, but 
neither advancement nor salary is dependent on the classification 
that obtains for grade teachers, since very few high school teachers 
receive a smaller salary than is paid elementary teachers in class C. 

It is usually assumed that the more poorly prepared and less 
experienced as well as the most poorly paid teachers are to be 
found in the more remote and smaller high schools of the state. 
It will be our endeavor to see to what extent this assumption holds 
true, by giving as many of the facts that bear on the situation as 
possible and forming such conclusions as these facts will warrant. 

The original data are given in Tables xvii-xix and should be 
read in the same manner as the tables for grade teachers. On 
account of the difficulty in tabulating the data pertaining to salaries 
of the teachers in each school, the original data are not given in 
these tables. It would have been more satisfactory if we had had 
a greater number of cases, but this was impossible in the case of 
consolidated schools, since practically all that have been established 
any length of time are included. The results obtained from data 
for town and city high schools indicate that we have a representative 
sampling and that a greater number of cases would not change the 
final results materially. 

The summary of the distribution of high school teachers on the 
basis of training is given in total numbers in Table xx and in 
per cents in Table xxi. A graphic representation of the same is 
given in Figure v. The returns were too indefinite to permit a 
detailed distribution of those who had had post-graduate work. 
It ranged from six weeks to two years. In computing the average 
training of the teachers in each type of high schools, it was arbi- 
trarily assumed that one year would be a fair average for all who 
reported having had post-graduate work. This is probably too 
large and would favor the city high schools since one out of every 
four have had some work beyond that required for an A.B. degree, 
while only one in every fifteen in the town and consolidated high 
schools report having had any graduate work. The central ten- 
dency for teachers in consolidated schools is a little higher than 



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[6o] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 6i 

TABLE XX 

Summary of the Training of High School Teachers 



















u 


































m 


kt 




C3 

3 












u 








T3 








^ 


^ 


a 




>. 


(U 


rt 


V is 


Corporation 


V 


V 
V 


^ 

^ 


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;^ 


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5 _ 




o 






C 


^ 


j3 







^ t^! 




12; 




IM 





H 


H 


tlH 


(U 


<•" 


Consolidated 








I 


6 


8 


27 


3 


3.55 


Town . . • ■ 








I 


14 


15 


42 


6 


3.4« 


City 




I 




7 


14 


28 


113 


50 


3.«5 



TABLE XXI 
Percentile Distribution of High School Teachers on Basis of Training 



Corporation 


u 

a 







>. 

a 



m 

>. 



H 


H 


V-i 

rt 
>. 

3 



u 

3 

ISO 




ll 

< 


Consolidated 2.2 13.3 17.8 60.0 

Town 1.2 18.1 19.2 53.8 

City 1 .5 ■■ 3-3 6.6 13.1 53-1 


6.7 3-55 

T-1 348 

23-5 3-85 



that of the town high schools, but a Uttle lower than the central, 
tendency for city high schools. The curves of distribution are very 
similar except that the variation for city teachers is greater. On 
the whole, the training of teachers in the city high schools is very 
little superior to the training of teachers in the consolidated and 
town high schools, which would indicate that some other factor 
than the amount of professional training was the determining factor 
in the distribution of high school teachers. 




[62] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 63 



TABLE XXII 

Distribution of High School Teachers on Basis of Experience 



Total Numbers 


Per cents 


S 


1 












bfi 








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3 


a 






■s 






J3 


r2 






ir 






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1 






3 





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> 


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5 


3 


3 


11.4 


3.8 


1.5 


1 


3 


6 


11 


6.8 


7.6 


5.4 


2 


4 


4 


9 


9.1 


5.1 


4.4 


3 


5 


6 


19 


11.4 


7.6 


9.3 


4 


6 


11 


22 


13.6 


13.9 


10.7 


5 


1 


9 


20 


2.3 


11.4 


9.8 


6 


2 


6 


12 


4.6 


7.6 


5.9 


7 


1 


6 


16 


2.3 


7.6 


8.8 


8 


5 


7 


10 


11.4 


8.9 


4.9 


9 


1 


3 


6 


2.3 


3.8 


3.0 


10 


1 


4 


14 


2.3 


5.1 


6.9 


11 





2 


9 




2.6 


4.4 


12 


1 


1 


7 


2.3 


1.3 


3.5 


13 


2 


2 


5 


4.6 


2.6 


2.5 


14 


1 


3 


5 


2.3 


3.8 


2.5 


15 


2 


1 


7 


4.6 


1.3 


3.5 


16 







5 






2.5 


17 


1 




3 


2.3 




1.5 


18 






1 






.5 


19 






2 






1.0 


20 




2 


5 




2.6 


2.5 


21 


1 




4 


2.3 




2.0 


22-25 




3 


5 




3.85 


2.5 


26- 


2 




4 


4.6 




2.0 



A summary of the distribution of high school teachers on the 
basis of experience is given in Table xvii. It will be observed that 
there is a much greater percentage of beginning teachers to be 
found in the consolidated high schools than in the town and city 
high schools. This field is so limited, however, that the consolidated 
schools cannot be said to be the training schools for the other two 
types as the rural schools are said to be training schools for grade 
teachers in consolidated, town, and city schools. The limited num- 
ber of beginning teachers in the high schools may be explained by 
the fact that most high school teachers have had experience in 
grade work before entering the high schools. To what extent this 
holds true, cannot be determined from the data at hand. It can be 



<^ be 




>g^ ^ . '^ 






o o 

OH 




[64] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 65 

said, relatively speaking, that three times as many inexperienced 
teachers entering the high schools without experience, begin in 
the township consolidated high schools as begin in the town high 
schools, and seven times as many as begin in the city high schools. 
In other words, a college graduate with no experience will find it 
three times easier to get a position in a consolidated high school 
than in a town high school, and seven times easier than to enter a 
city high school, leaving out of consideration for the moment, the 
difference in the number of schools in each type. 

The graph. Figure vi, showing the distribution of teachers as 
given in Table xvii, shows that we have too limited a number of 
cases in the consolidated high school to warrant many inferences 
with reference to experience of teachers. The curves of distribu- 
tion for towns and cities are quite similar notwithstanding the fact 
that there are three times as many cases in^ the latter as in the 
former. It will be observed that the modes for the three types of 
schools are the same. The median number of years of experience 
of teachers in the consolidated schools is four and eight-threehun- 
dredths. The median number of years of experience of the teachers 
in the high schools of the towns is six and eight-hundredths, and 
that of the teachers in the city high schools is seven and thirty- 
eight hundredths years. These facts as well as the limited returns 
as to "length of service in present position" indicate that changes 
are more frequent in consolidated schools than in either of the 
other two types. An effort was made to secure data that would 
permit an analysis of the situation as to length of service in one 
position, but the returns were inadequate for this purpose. Con- 
sidering all the facts at hand, it is safe to conclude that experience 
is a much more vital factor in the distribution of high school 
teachers than is academic and professional training. 

Contrary to common opinion, the facts as revealed in Table 
XXIII fail to show the great advantage that teachers in the city 
high schools are thought to enjoy from the standpoint of salaries 
received, over the teachers in the consolidated and town high 
schools. The median salary of all teachers, including the principals, 
in the city high schools is four dollars and fifty-four cents per day 
with an average deviation of sixty-one cents, while the median 
salary of teachers in the consolidated high schools is four dollars 
and forty-eight cents with an average deviation of fifty-five cents, 
and in the town high schools it is four dollars and forty-six cents 






NO 



NO 
















cl 



K 
^ 






OP 

« 



ss 



o o 






[66] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 67 



TABLE XXIII 



Distribution of High School 


Teachers 


, Including 


THE Principals, on the 




Basis of Daily Salary 


Number of teachers in each type 


Per cent of teachers in each type 


receiving sal 


ary given 




receiving salary given 


Daily 
Salary 


Consoli- 
dated 


Town 


City 


Consoli- 
dated 


Town 


City 


$3.00 


1 


1 





1.95 


1.38 


0.00 


3.25 


3 


2 


2 


5.88 


2.77 


1.25 


3.50 


4 


8 


8 


7.84 


11.11 


5.00 


3.75 


4 


6 


15 


7.84 


8.22 


9.37 


4.00 


7 


14 


27 


13.92 


18.43 


16.87 


4.25 


7 


6 


25 


13.92 


8.22 


15.62 


4.50 


6 


6 


19 


11.76 


8.22 


11.88 


4.75 


3 


4 


19 


5.88 


5.55 


11.87 


5.00 


7 


6 


17 


13.92 


8.22 


10.62 


5.25 


2 


2 


7 


3.92 


2.77 


4.57 


5.50 


3 


4 


3 


5.88 


5.55 


1.88 


5.75 


1 


2 


2 


1.95 


2.77 


1.25 


6.00 


1 


1 


4 


1.95 


1.38 


2.50 


6.25 


1 


5 


4 


1.95 


6.94 


2.50 


6.50 






1 




1.38 


.63 


6.75 






2 




2.77 


1.25 


7.00 


1 




1 


1.95 


1.38 


.62 


7.25 






3 




1.38 


1.87 


7.50 






1 




1.38 


.66 



Median 
A D 



$4.48 
$0.55 



$4.46 
$0.82 



$4.54 
$0.61 



with an average deviation of eighty-three cents. There is a greater 
variabiHty in the salaries of teachers in the town high schools than 
in either of the other two types. With the thought of determining 
the cause of this greater deviation, a second table was compiled 
(see Table xxiv), omitting the high school principals who on 
account of some administrative work and supervision of the work 
of the grades receive a higher salary than the regular high school 
teachers. Naturally the effect will be much more pronounced on 
the type of high schools employing the fewer number of teachers. 
The median salary was found to be four dollars and fourteen cents 
per day with an average deviation of forty-one cents for teachers 
in the consolidated high schools, not including the principals, four 
dollars and seven cents with an average deviation of forty-three 
cents for teachers in the town high schools, and four dollars and 
forty-two cents with an average deviation of forty-five cents for 
teachers in the city high schools. While the median salary of the 
entire teaching population in the three types of schools is practically 



68 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



the same, the higher salary paid the principals of the consolidated 
and town high schools as compared with the salary paid regular 
teachers, causes the salary of the regular teachers in the high 
schools to be a little lower than that paid the teachers in the city 
high schools. Generally speaking, the principalship of a smaller 
high school is more desirable from the standpoint of salary than 
is a regular teaching position in city high schools. 

Figure vii shows the distribution of high school teachers on 
basis of salary in the three types of schools when the principals 
were included, while Figure viii shows the distribution without the 
principals. The second mode at five dollars for teachers in consoli- 
dated schools and at six dollars and twenty-five cents for teachers 
in the town high schools in Figure vii are not present in Figure viii, 
which would indicate that these are the most frequent salaries of 
the principals in these two types. The greater difiference in the 
median salaries of consolidated and town high school teachers when 
principals are included, also shows that the principals in the town 
schools receive a larger salary in relation to the number of teachers 

TABLE XXIV 

Distribution of High School Teachers, Not Including the Principals, on 

Basis of Salary 



Number of teachers receiving 
salary given 


Per cent of teachers in each type receiving 
salary given 


Daily 
Salary 


Consoli- 
dated 


Town 


City 


Consoli- 
dated 


Town 


City 


$3 .00 
3.25 
3.50 
3.75 
4.00 
4.25 
4.50 
4. '5 
5.00 
5.25 
5.50 
5.75 
6.00 
6.25 
6.50 
6.75 


1 
3 
4 
4 
7 
6 

3 
1 


1 

2 
8 
5 
13 
5 
5 
4 
6 
1 


2 
8 

15 

27 

25 

14 

19 

15 

6 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 


3.12 

9.36 

12.48 

12.48 

21.85 

18.73 

9.36 

9.36 

3.12 


2 

4 
16 
10 
26 
10 
10 

8 
12 

2 


1.46 

5.84 

10.95 

19.70 

18.10 

10.20 

13.80 

10.90 

4.30 

1.^6 

1.46 

2.92 

1.46 

1.46 



Median 
A D 



.14 
.405 



.07 
.426 



$4.42 
.541 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 69 

under them than do the principals of consoHdated schools. Taking 
the school as a whole, the consolidated high school teachers are 
better paid than teachers in the town high schools. 

Special Teachers and Supervisors 

The nature and extent of the work of special teachers and super- 
visors is so varied that it is difficult to get any basis for comparison 
of the work in the different types of schools. In one school a 
supervisor may do all the teaching in a special subject, such as 
music, or she may plan the work for the entire system, giving 
special instruction and supervising the work of the grade teachers, 
or she may devote the greater part of her time to instruction in 
the high school and merely plan the work, secure materials and 
special aids for the regular teachers. Be that as it may, the fact 
that a school system has a special teacher on its pay-roll who devotes 
all her time and energy along the line of her specialty would indicate 
that that system of schools is giving greater consideration to that 
line of work than a school system that has no such teacher. 

The state board of education requires high schools to give work 
in music and drawing in order to be commissioned or certified, as 
the case may be. In order to meet this requirement, some school 
boards secure local talent to give a few hours' instruction in the 
high school each week. In one case it was reported that the salary 
per day of a music teacher was five dollars while the monthly pay- 
roll showed that she received twenty-five dollars per month. In a 
number of cases the work in music and drawing was taught by 
teachers of the regular high school subjects, which would mean 
that no attention was given to these subjects in the grades except 
as was given by the grade teachers themselves. Cases were 
found where teachers were employed to give instruction in a special 
line of work, but were also required to take one or more classes in 
the regular high school subjects. 

The two cases in Table xxv where a special teacher gives in- 
struction in music and drawing in the township district schools, are 
examples of a recent movement in Indiana to provide instruction 
for the rural schools in some of the special subjects that is in a way 
comparable with that given in consolidated, town, and city schools. 
A few townships or combination of townships employ a special 
teacher who goes from school to school to give instruction in music 
and drawing. Recent legislation has provided for an agent or 



70 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



supervisor for each county who shall devote his whole time to the 
rural schools. While it is not mandatory, many counties are pre- 
paring to take up this work as provided for by law. In some cases 
the transportation of these special teachers is provided by the town- 
ship, while in others the teachers have to provide their own con- 
veyances. These teachers give out plans and material and give 
instruction to the teachers at each regular meeting of the teachers 
in township institutes ; so that the work can be made as efifective 
as in schools located in centers of population. 

TABLE XXV 

Special Teachers and Supervisors 





Number 


Per cent 


Number and per cent of school corpora- 


















tions with 












.J. 








2 






>. 


£ 


1-0 


g 


>» 




3 


©■s 


,o 


*^ 


3 


ols 


o 


.^ 




OS 


U-o 


H 


u 


« 


u-S 


^ 


o 


1 No special teacher or supervisor 


29 





3 


8 


93.5 


17.6 


32 


00 


2 One special teacher or supervisor 


2 


6 


12 


4 


6.4 


35.3 


48 


16.6 


3 Two special teachers or supervisors 




7 


2 


8 




41.3 


8 


33.3 


4 Three special teachers or supervisors 






2 


7 






8 


28.0 


Four special teachers or supervisors 








3 








12.5 


Five special teachers or supervisors 








2 








8.3 


Number of school corporations in which 


















the special subjects are taught by 


















Regular teachers 






7 


3 






28 


12.5 


One special teacher for music 




7 


1 


13 




41.2 


4 


54.2 


One special teacher for drawing 




6 


1 


10 




35.3 


4 


41.6 


One special teacher for music and draw- 


















ing 


2 


6 


11 


10 


6.6 


35.3 


44 


41.6 


One special teacher for music, drawing, 


















and domestic art 




1 


1 






5.8 


4 




One special teacher for domestic science 






5 


8 






20 


33.3 


One special teacher for manual training 






1 


9 






4 


37.5 


One special teacher for agriculture 


















One special teacher for penmanship 








2 








8.3 


One special teacher for German in 


















grades 








1 








4.16 


Supervisor of primary work 








2 








8.3 



Table xxv shows that consolidated schools are giving greater 
consideration to the newer subjects than the town schools. Thirty- 
two per cent of the latter have no special teacher or supervisor, 
forty-eight per cent with only one, and eight per cent with two spe- 
cial teachers, as compared with seventeen per cent of the consoli- 
dated schools with no special teacher, thirty-five per cent with only 
one, and forty-one per cent with two special teachers. This same 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana yi 



fact is shown a little farther down in the table where forty-four 
per cent of the towns have the one special teacher for both music 
and drawing, while the consolidated schools have a special teacher 
for the two subjects in only thirty-five per cent of the schools. The 
consolidated schools far surpass the town schools and compare very 
favorably with the city schools in the number in which there is a 
special teacher for each of the two subjects, music and drawing. 
In all cases in the consolidated schools manual training was taught 
by some teacher who was selected primarily to teach other subjects. 
The same was true in the town schools with one exception. While 
agriculture was given considerable attention by a number of schools, 

TABLE XXVI 

Distribution of Special Teachers on Basis of Salary 



Number 


Per cent 






"i-o 


a 




Id 


|t3 


C5 






§ 


§^ 


% 


^ 


1 




1 


^ 




p^ 


U-o 


H 


u 


rA 


U-S ] H 


o 


$2.00 




1 


1 


1 




5.8 


6.2 


2 


2.50 


1 


2 


1 


1 


50 


11.7 


6.2 


2 


3.00 




4 


2 


2 




23.5 


12.4 


4 


3.25 


1 


4 


2 


4 


50 


23.5 


12.4 


8 


3.50 




4 


2 


4 




23.5 


12 A 


8 


3.75 




2 


2 


6 




11.7 


12.4 


12 


4.00 






3 


10 






18.6 


20 


4.25 






1 


9 






6.2 


18 


4.50 








8 








16 


4.75 








3 








6 


5.00 






2 


1 






12.4 


2 


6.00 








1 











Median 



.34 $3 .67 $4 .17 



especially the town and consolidated schools, only one teacher was 
found who was selected primarily for that work, and that was in 
a town school. While domestic science and domestic art are given 
as much attention in the consolidated schools as in the town schools, 
as we shall see a little later, we find that the former have only one 
school where a special teacher has this work, while special teachers 
are provided in twenty-four per cent of the town schools, and thirty- 
three per cent of the city schools. Special teachers of penmanship, 
German in the grades, and supervisors of primary work were found 
only in a very small per cent of the cities. 



72 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



The salaries of special teachers per diem in the consolidated 
schools are lower than the salaries of special teachers in the towns, 
which is the reverse of what was found concerning the salaries of 
regular teachers, both in the grades and high school. The median 
salary of the special teachers in the consolidated schools is three 
dollars and thirty-four cents per day as compared with the median 
salary of three dollars and sitxy-seven cents for the special teachers 
in the town and the median salary of four dollars and seventeen 
cents for the special teachers in the city schools. 

The salaries of special teachers in all schools are lower than 
the salaries of the regular high school teachers, but somewhat better 
than the salaries of the regular grade teachers as will be observed 
by referring to Table xxvii. 

TABLE XXVII 

Median Salaries of Grade, Special, and High School Teachers in Con- 
solidated, Town, and City Schools 



Grade 
Teachers 


Special 
Teachers 


High School 
Teachers 


Consolidated $3.10 


$3.34 
3.67 
4-17 


$4.14 


Town 3-12 

City 3-34 


4.07 

4.42 



CHAPTER IV 

Enrichment of Curricula 
A good test of the kind of work a school is doing, though some- 
what intangible, is to study the nature and extent of the effort of 
that school to enrich its course of study. Not plans and outlines 
on paper merely, but enrichment in the sense that an effort is made 
to bring to the child those things demanded by the life he is living 
and the problems he will have to meet and in such a manner as to 
cause an appreciation and response on the part of the child. It may 
happen that a certain school has introduced manual training with 
the idea of satisfying the ambitious desires of a city superintendent 
to keep apace with what some other school or superintendent is 
doing and there be a decided lack of any understanding of what 
should be attempted or the values to be realized. On the other hand 
a superintendent and his teachers may gradually develop a line of 
work in response to local needs without giving a specific name to it 
or a definite time and place in the curriculum, but correlate it with 
some of the traditional subjects. While it may be true that one 
school does more work in a certain line, nature study, for example, 
in connection with home geography, than another school which has 
a definite time and place in its course for this work, it is more than 
probable, at this stage in the evolution of our schools, that the 
extent to which the newer subjects are given a definite place in the 
curricula of the different types of schools may be considered a fair 
index of the nature and extent of the work that is being done by 
them along these lines. It is on this assumption that a presentation 
of the time and place of the newer subjects in the curricula of the 
different types of schools is given in a more or less detailed manner. 
The legislature and the state board of education have had a de- 
termining influence on the curricula of schools. The law enacted in 
1869, which is still in force, pertaining to what shall be taught in 
the common schools of the state is as follows: 

"The common schools of the state shall be taught in the English 
language and the trustee shall provide to be taught in them orthog- 
raphy, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, physiology, 
history of the United States, and good behavior, and such other 
branches of learning and other languages as the advaricement of 
the pupil may require and the trustees from time to time direct. 
And whenever parents and guardians of twenty-five or more chil- 



74 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

dren in attendance at any school of a township, town, or city shall 
so demand, it shall be the duty of the school trustee or trustees of 
said township, town, or city to procure an efficient teacher and 
introduce the German language as a branch of study in such 
schools; and the tuition in said schools shall be without charge, 
provided such demand is made before a teacher for said district is 
employed." To the above list of required subjects was added 
"Scientific Temperance" in 1895. 

The great factor in determining the curricula of the schools of 
the state has been the initiative and leadership of the state superin- 
tendent of public instruction supported by the state board of edu- 
cation. The control the state superintendent has in formulating 
the course of study for the schools of the state has been gained by 
the exercise of initiative on the part of certain men who have held 
this position and by virtue of the power delegated to this office 
rather than by any direct legislation. Prior to 1894 each county 
board of education was supposed to adopt a course of study for the 
schools of the county, but at a meeting of the county superinten- 
dents' association of that year a resolution was passed which placed 
the construction of the course of study in the hands of the state 
superintendent. The course is adopted and enforced by the county 
board of education of each county, though modifications and addi- 
tions may be made by any school corporation if sanctioned by the 
state department so long as these changes do not interfere with the 
subjects specified by law. On account of the fact that the rural 
schools had the greatest need for a definite course of study to guide 
the work in these schools, it has been planned to fit the conditions 
and meet the needs of the rural school particularly so that modifica- 
tions need to be made to fit the course of study to the organization 
of town and city schools with their longer school year as well as 
local needs. Naturally, a course of study planned for a six months' 
rural school would not be suited to a nine or ten months' school year 
of town and city without some adjustments. The course of study 
issued by the state superintendent for the year 1913-1914 is a 
marked improvement over preceding courses. It is organized on 
the semester basis with a maximum and minimum amount of work 
specified, the minimum amount to be covered by the rural schools 
with a shorter school year, and the maximum to be completed by 
schools which continue in session eight or nine months. It also 
provides for the correlation of the work in rural schools so as to 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 75 

make possible a reduction in the number of classes and specifies in 
more detail the work that should be covered by schools with short 
school year and what should be added in schools which continue 
in session a longer period. While the matter of seeing that teachers 
follow the state course of study in the grades is left, for the most 
part, to local officials, the state board of education exercises direct 
supervision of the work of the high schools. A high school is not 
compelled to use the course of study issued by the state department, 
but the courses used must be approved in order for this school to 
retain its commission or certificate as the case may be. The required 
work in the more recent courses is limited and definite, with exten- 
sive electives, so that it is possible for a pupil to select most any kind 
of a course he may desire. He may take work that will fit him to 
meet college entrance requirements or he may take more practical 
work and specialize in science and agriculture. 

The state manual or course of study for the grades for the year 
1911-1912 gave definite outlines for the work in the required sub- 
jects for each year they were to be taught, combining and corre- 
lating physiology, hygiene and scientific temperance, and in addi- 
tion, gave detailed outlines for work in music and agriculture, and 
general suggestions for work in drawing. This course was adopted 
by most, if not all, county boards of education and became the 
official guide for all rural and consolidated schools. All rural 
schools weie found to be using this state manual, but when a more 
detailed investigation was made, it was found in several cases, and 
probably is true in many schools, that it was followed in so far as 
it pertained to the textbook work in the traditional subjects but 
that little attention was given to elementary language and history 
work and to the newer subjects of the curriculum such as music, 
drawing, agriculture, manvial training, and domestic science. Ex- 
ceptions were found where schools were in charge of well-trained, 
experienced teachers. All consolidated schools use the state course 
of study in the grades without modification, with one exception, in 
which case a local course in geography was planned. The situation 
in the town schools was very similar to that found in the consoli- 
dated schools, while the greatest deviations from the state course 
of study were found in the city schools. The number and per cent 
of schools using the state manual without and with modification 
and the number using a course of study planned for the one school, 
is given in Table xxviii. 



76 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE XXVIII 
Courses of Stxtdy Used in the Foxjr Types of Schools 







Grades 


High School 




Number 


Per cent 




Number 


Per cent 






u 

■p§ 


using 


using 




usmg 


usmg 




^ 


























3 '5 


3 ^ 


-0 






•n 






T3 






•0 






eg 

?8 


8-0' 


-0 


"3 


(U 


^ 


"d 


<a 




"rt 


(U 


a 


■3 




e28 




:^ 





i3 

CO 


s 


^ 


(55 


:§ 




d 

55 



IS 


^ 


Rural 


30 


30 






100 


















Consolidated 


17 


16 


1 




94.1 


5.6 




12 


4 


1 


70.4 


23 .5 


5.9 


Town 


25 


25 






100 






21 


4 




84.0 


16.0 




City 


24 


4 


10 


10 


16.6 


41.6 


41.6 


4 


10 


10 


16.6 


41.6 


41.6 



It will be observed from the above table that the state manual 
is used in practically all schools in the grades except in the cities. 
While the table shows that eighty-three per cent of the city schools 
used either a modified form of the state course of study or a course 
locally planned, an examination of these courses shows that few 
of them differ greatly from the state manual. The answers to the 
inquiry, "How different from state course of study?" show that 
the efforts to adapt the state course of study or to plan a course 
that would meet the local conditions and needs were confined, for 
the most part, to a redivision of the work outlined in the state 
manual and to suggestions for supplementing this work. Some of 
the answers given to this question by superintendents who were not 
influenced by the state course of study any more than by courses 
from other cities were: "Greater correlation of subjects", "Less 
formal grammar and more constructive language work", "Emphasis 
on manual training and domestic science", "German in the grades", 
"Place for physical and social education", and "Use of supple- 
mentary readers". The last refers to a series of texts not adopted 
by the state. 

The fact that the state manual is so extensively used as issued 
and in a modified form in the different schools of the state is due 
to the nature of the training and experience of the principals or 
superintendents in the consolidated, town, and quite a number of 
the city schools. The men are selected with reference to academic 
training and ability to teach certain high school subjects, since the 
greater part of their time is devoted to teaching in the high schools, 
rather than to professional training or ability to plan elementary 
work. The men coming directly from the colleges or departmental 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana yy 

positions in the high schools are neither famihar with elementary 
school problems or with the educational literature giving the experi- 
ence of other schoolmen and specialists in dealing with these prob- 
lems. As these men advance to the superintendency of schools and 
other inexperienced men take their places, it is not until they have 
become superintendents of larger schools that they have become 
familiar enough with the problems of the grades and have acquired 
sufficient experience in dealing with them to be competent to plan, 
unaided, a course of study for the grades. 

The state course of study for high schools does not occupy sq 
definite and fixed a position in the schools of the state as does the 
course of study for the elementary schools. This is true for two 
reasons. The effort of school officials was first directed toward 
the elementary schools and secondly, the high schools of the state 
were in charge of men who were more able to plan their own work. 
The need of standardization, college entrance requirements and the 
more recent changes in secondary education led to an increased 
activity on the part of the state officials. The state course of study 
being planned for the greater number of high schools would natur- 
ally be better fitted for the towns and smaller city high schools than 
for consolidated and larger city high schools. It was found that 
only sixteen per cent of the city high schools and seventy per cent of 
the consolidated high schools used the state course of study without 
modifications as compared with eighty-four per cent of the town 
high schools. The changes made by the consolidated schools were 
usually with the idea of making possible greater specialization in 
science and agriculture and in the larger city high schools in order 
to offer a greater number of courses from which the pupil might 
select. These city high schools usually offer a commercial course, 
but none offered an industrial course. 

A comparative study of the time and place given the newer sub- 
jects in the different types of schools will give some idea of the 
efforts made in each to enrich the course of study. This was done 
to a certain extent when the subject of special teachers was consid- 
ered, but to get a definite basis for comparison that is fair to all 
types, it is necessary to include w^ork done by regular as well as by 
special teachers. Superintendents and principals were asked if 
they gave regular and systematic instruction in music, drawing, 
etc., mentioning all the newer subjects. In all subjects to which 
an affirmative answer was given further inquiry was made as to 
the grade in which the work was given, number of lessons per week 





w 




^ 




M 




^ 


'e? 






H 


X 


C? 




y 


M 


pa 


K^ 


w 




H-l 


O 


pq 


rn 


•31 


h) 


H 


O 

O 



sapBiS m UBUuao 


O -H 


u9WB3Ji3pni3 


O cs 




lOoqDS 
q3jH 


CN -rt" 


apBiQ 


ro t^ 




looqDS 


\0 lO vO 


apwg 


i-^ T-< 00 


— bO 

cs a 


looqas 

qsiH 


00 lO l^ 


apBio 


OOt^O 


5 
1 


looqos 


so Ov 00 


apBio 


On C^ fO O 


>> 

en 
a 
1 


jooqog 

qS;H 


^OO 


apBio 


lO On 0\ t^ 


to 

a 

'% 
a 

O 


jooqas 

qsjH 




apBio 


lO U-) OS Cv) 

■rt T-H CN 


3 


looqDg 
qSiH 




apBio 


Ol^'-H •* 
T-l T-H (M C<l 


UOpBJOdlOD JO 

laquma ib;ox 


O t^ "0 ■* 

ro «-l CN CN 






Rural 

Consolidated 
Town 
City 





uBimao 


o ■* 


uavreSiapui^ 


q 

00 


< 

i 


lOoqDS 




apBio 


9l 

CN Ov 


II 


looqDS 
q3!H 


rooq 

rO CN <>J 


spwo 


CNOro 

^ CO 


» em 
5 .S 


jooqag 

q3;H 


I^O OS 
■* CN CN 


apwo 


qovq 

t^ vO ^ 
•>* CN ■* 


1 

bO 

<; 


looqos 

qsjH 


TjH ro t^ 


apvic) 


0\q q 

O ro CN O 

ro iA> ■^ 




lOoqos 
qSiH 


00 


spwO 


^ ^ 'R '^ 
SO ro MD 0\ 
■rt IT) ro CN 


.a 

1-1 

ft 


lOoqDg 
qS'H 


00 CNOO 


apwo 


vq cN q vq 

vO 00 so »-i 
'-I 00*^ Os 


3 


looqog 

qsiH 


(M <M O 

00 00 o 

T-H 


spwQ 


foqqq 

rO O -rj* O 
(TjOOOO 






2 a § >> 
:3 o o.ti 



[78] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 79 

and average length of period for each. It was found in most cases, 
when music was given that it extended through the grades and the 
high school. The schools were about equally divided, half the 
number devoting only one period per week to the subject and half 
the schools giving two periods per week to it in the grades, and 
one period per week in practically all the high schools. The same 
could be said of drawing except in the towns, especially in the high 
schools. Nature study was given in the lower grades, usually the 
first four, and correlated with the work in home geography. Agri- 
culture, manual training, and domestic science were given in the 
first year of high school and sometimes extending through the 
second year. When given in the high school these subjects were 
also taught in the seventh and eighth grades. These subjects are 
seldom taught in the grades when not taught in the high school. 

So much is being said and written about industrial education, 
agriculture, manual training, domestic science, and the like, that 
we are often inclined to believe that these newer subjects have 
definite places in the curricula of most of our schools. To what 
extent these subjects are being taught in the different types of 
schools of Indiana may be seen by referring to Table xxix. It will 
be observed that only one-third of the rural schools pretend to do 
any systematic work in music and only one-sixth do any work in 
drawing. Some attention is given to nature study and agriculture 
in about one-third of the schools. All consolidated schools give 
regular and systematic work in drawing in the high schools, but 
in only eighty-eight per cent of the grades. Fifty per cent of the 
consolidated schools offer nature study in the lower grades and 
agriculture in the upper grammar grades and high school, forty- 
seven per cent give regular work in manual training and about forty 
per cent offer courses in domestic science, which is a very creditable 
showing, as compared with what is done in the town schools in these 
subjects, where only about thirty-five per cent give any attention to 
agriculture and twenty per cent give instruction in manual training 
and domestic science. The city schools rank second to the consoli- 
dated schools in all these subjects except agriculture in the high 
school. The work in agriculture in the city schools is more of a 
textbook subject and taught with a different purpose than the 
agriculture that is given in the consolidated schools. While quite 
a number of the larger cities included in this study are industrial 
centers, no mention is made of industrial courses except commercial 
work in the curricula of any of the high schools. 



CHAPTER V 

Supervision 

A comparison of the supervision in the different types of schools 
must take the form of a survey for the most part and be limited 
to a comparison of the supervisory forces, nature and extent of 
the efforts of the supervising officials to give constructive super- 
vision of the regular work of the teachers, provision for profes- 
sional improvement of teachers in service and special attention 
given to the physical needs of the children. If a distinction were 
made between inspection and supervision, a discussion of the latter 
would be limited to something less than fifty per cent of consolidated 
and city schools and ten per cent of town schools. 

The supervision of instruction of rural schools is under the 
direction of the county superintendents. The county superinten- 
dent also has the same jurisdiction over consolidated schools which 
are under the immediate supervision of the principal. The princi- 
pals of town schools supervise the work of the town schools. The 
supervisory staff of the city schools consists of a superintendent, 
ward, and high school principals, supervisors of special subjects 
and frequently departmental supervisors such as a supervisor of 
primary grades and a supervisor of grammar grades. 

Table xxx shows that there is little possibility of real super- 
vision in the rural schools. The average number of teachers under 

TABLE XXX 

Supervision in the Different Types of Schools 





Rural 


Consoli- 
dated 


Towri 


City 


Average number of teachers under 










each superintendent 


103 


6 


" 


34 


Average number of teachers under 










each principal 




8 


8 


6 


Average number of teachers for 










each special teacher or supervisor 




6.4 


10.8 


12.2 


Average number of visits per year 










to each room by superintendents 


1.8 


2.5 




45 


Average number of visits per year 










to each room by principals 




5.6 


48 




Average length in minutes of visits 










by superintendents 


85 


60 




24 


Average length in minutes of visits 










by principals 




12 


23 




Average amount of time in minutes 










spent by superintendents and prin- 










cipals with each teacher per week 


6.4 


28 


27 


29 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 8i 

each county superintendent is one hundred three. The average 
number of visits made by county superintendents to each teacher 
in the township district schools was one and eight-tenths and the 
average length of each visit was eighty-five minutes. When we 
take into consideration the fact that practically all the schools under 
the jurisdiction of the county superintendent are one-room schools 
located about three miles apart, that much of his time is taken up 
with clerical duties and the grading of manuscripts for the certifi- 
cation of teachers, we can readily understand why little more than 
a hasty inspection of the schools in the county is possible even 
where the county superintendent is fitted by training and experience 
to do effective supervision. Many county superintendents make it 
a point to inspect the work of beginning teachers more frequently 
than they do the work of experienced teachers. It sometimes hap- 
pens that a teacher has difficulty in arranging her work or meeting 
other problems of the school, in which case the county superinten- 
dent will make a number of visits and spend considerable time in 
getting matters adjusted. Such cases are rare and usually reach a 
critical stage before the superintendent knows about them and aids 
the teachers in solving the difficulties. In the report of county 
superintendents to the state superintendent very few mention 
anything that would indicate that any systematic effort is made to 
improve the work of the teachers. Administrative problems, such 
as sanitary conditions, consolidation of schools, introduction of 
agriculture were discussed, but no consideration given to internal 
work of the schools. Further evidence of lack of any constructive 
supervision on the part of most county superintendents is seen in 
the answers given when asked to state in order of importance, the 
purposes in mind in visiting the schools. The three things men- 
tioned most frequently were: a — legal requirement, that is, a- super- 
intendent must visit all teachers once during the year in order to 
be able to give each teacher a success grade for the year ; b — to see 
that teachers are following the state course of study, another legal 
requirement; and c — general inspection. One out of every eleven 
county superintendents gave an answer that would indicate an effort 
to do constructive work such as improvement of primary methods, 
reading, use of supplementary books, emphasis on importance of 
phonics and systematic work in spelling, encouragement of more 
systematic work in agriculture, and the like. When we consider 
the number of visits and amount of time spent at each school, we 
know that such efforts are not far-reaching. 



82 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

The work of the consolidated schools is much more carefully 
supervised. These schools, where found, are given considerable 
attention by friends and foes alike so that the men who are respon- 
sible for them put forth a great effort to place the work on as high a 
plane as possible. The county superintendent visits these schools 
more frequently than he does the township district schools and the 
principal is selected with reference to his ability to supervise more 
than is the principal of a town school. In addition to the inspec- 
tions made by the county superintendent, the principals of the 
consolidated schools average fifty-six visits to each teacher dur- 
ing the year, spending on an average twelve minutes in each room. 
The county superintendent and principal cooperate in their en- 
deavor to make the work of the school equal to that found in any 
school of the state by perfecting the organization, securing neces- 
sary materials and equipment, but not giving a great deal of atten- 
tion to the improvement of instruction. One is impressed by the 
fact that too much consideration is given to what is being done in 
the city schools and not enough to the local situation. The special 
teachers devote very little time to supervision as they do practically 
all the work in the different grades in their special subjects. The 
answers given by county superintendents to the question concern- 
ing the purpose of visitations showed that the legal aspect was of 
secondary importance and that educational problems were appre- 
ciated to a certain extent and given consideration. 

The work of the town schools is the most poorly supervised 
of any type considered, except the rural schools. The principals 
have had little training or experience in supervising grade work 
and are usually required to devote the larger part of their time to 
classroom instruction. These schools are frequently handicapped 
by lack of adequate material and equipment. The stimulus for 
doing the best work possible, given consolidated schools on account 
of being a newer movement and thus under more or less critical 
observation of patrons and schoolmen, is also lacking. These 
schools are deprived, through practice rather than by legislation, 
of the stimulus and suggestions of the count}' superintendent since 
towns are permitted to withdraw from the jurisdiction of the county 
superintendent, the same as city schools. Notwithstanding these 
limitations, the showing made by the principals of town schools 
who average forty-eight visits of twenty-three minutes each to each 
teacher compares favorably with the efforts of the superintendents 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 83 

of city schools and principals of consolidated schools. The answers 
to the question as to the purpose of visitation indicate that the work 
of most of the principals is inspectorial rather than supervisory. 
Sixteen per cent of the principals seemed to be doing what might 
be called constructive supervision. 

The supervisory force and conditions in most of the city schools 
are such that effective work can be done. The nature and extent 
of such work depends more on the initiative and progressiveness 
of the city superintendent than on external factors. While no data 
are at hand to indicate the extent of the work of the ward principals, 
it is safe to assume that their work is in a way comparable to what 
is done by the principals of the town schools. In addition to the 
work of these principals we find that the city superintendents aver- 
age forty-five visits of twenty-four minutes each to each teacher. 
The answers of forty-five per cent of the superintendents to ques- 
tions concerning the purpose of visitation indicated that they were 
at work on definite problems which they mentioned without hesi- 
tation, while the answers of the remaining fifty-five per cent showed 
their work to be general inspection. 

Professional Improvement of Teachers in Service 

One of the essentials in a progressive school system is to provide 
some means of stimulating the professional spirit among beginning 
teachers and to keep this spirit alive and encourage experienced 
teachers to keep in touch with the progress made in the various 
fields of education, in order that they may not become narrow 
and their work become mechanical. The regular educational 
organizations open to all teachers, which are intended to meet 
these needs, are "The State Teachers' Association" held during 
the Christmas vacation, the two sectional associations held during 
the spring vacation, county institutes held at the county seats during 
August and the first week of September and a "County Teachers' 
Association" usually held during the Thanksgiving vacation. There 
is also a "State Superintendents' and Principals' Association" that 
holds annual meetings during the month of March. The state and 
sectional associations are conducted on the plan of all larger organi- 
zations of teachers. There are general meetings attended by all, 
followed by sectional meetings at which problems pertaining to the 
work of the teachers of that particular group are discussed. While 
any teacher in the state is eligible to membership, the superinten- 



84 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

dents and principals of the various schools and teachers of the city 
schools attend in greater number than do the teachers in town and 
rural schools. 

The county institute conducted by the county superintendent 
continues in session five days with morning and afternoon sessions. 
Attendance on the part of teachers under the jurisdiction of the 
township trustees and county superintendent is in a way compul- 
sory. Regular attendance means an addition of two per cent to 
general average which in turn means an increase in daily salary 
for the following year, provided the teacher is paid the minimum 
amount called for by her certificate as provided by law. This in- 
crease in salary amounts to about what the teacher would receive 
for one week of regular school work. Failure to attend not only 
means the forfeiture of this additional salary but also a lowering 
of success grade which in turn means a decrease in salary for the 
succeeding year. The additional two per cent is granted to town 
and city teachers but as many of them receive little more than the 
minimum salary or are teaching on a normal school diploma or 
exemption license, attendance does not mean any increase in salary 
for them the following school year. Failure to attend, on the other 
hand, does not mean lowering of success grade and reduction of 
salary as the city superintendents who make out the success grades 
of city teachers do not, as a rule, give as much importance to the 
county institute as do the county superintendents. While there is 
this lack of compulsion on the part of city teachers, they do attend 
quite regularly. The work is usually given by two or three special 
instructors, one devoting his time to psychology and methods, one 
to a discussion of importance, purpose, and methods of teaching 
some subject, such as history, and the third giving work along some 
special line such as music or agriculture. The work of the whole 
institute is planned for the most part with reference to the needs 
of rural teachers, since the attendance is made up more largely of 
teachers from district schools and the county superintendent has 
greater interest in them. In some counties the afternoon program 
consists of sectional programs which make it possible to arrange 
the work to meet the interests and needs of the different groups 
of teachers. 

The County Teachers' Association is a voluntary organization 
of the teachers of the county and is controlled and managed by the 
teachers themselves. The school officials in many counties have 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 85 

encouraged this organization by permitting teachers to draw regular 
salary for Thanksgiving Day and the Friday following, provided 
they attend the two-day sessions of the association regularly, that 
is held on Friday and Saturday following Thanksgiving Day. 

Thus far we have been speaking of organized activities in which 
teachers of all types of school join on a common basis. When we 
come to consider the professional work of teachers in service in 
the different types, considerable variation is found. The teachers 
in township district and consolidated schools must meet in institute 
one Saturday each month for which they receive the same salary 
as for one day of teaching. Failure to attend without a good excuse 
causes the teacher to forfeit not only the salary for the day, but 
also an additional day's salary or an additional day of regular 
teaching may be substituted. This provision is not always vigor- 
ously enforced. The work of the township institute is planned by 
the state department and is based for the most part on the State 
Teachers' Reading Circle books, adopted by the state board of 
education, with an additional line of study more or less closely 
related to the work of the elementary schools and is under the direc- 
tion of the county superintendent or someone appointed by him. 
Each teacher, in addition to preparing all the work for the day has 
some definite work to do. The reports given by the teachers and 
the discussions that follow are of great value in getting teachers 
to think about the problems and movements in their profession. 
While no definite provision is made for the discussion of the prob- 
lems of the individual teacher that arise in the schoolroom, they 
are often presented and discussed so that the teacher concerned has 
the benefit of the experience of other teachers in solving her difficul- 
ties. The interest and value of the work of the institute depend 
to a great extent on the initiative and leadership of the one in 
charge. 

The town and city school teachers have no all-day meetings for 
professional study comparable to the township institute for rural 
and consolidated school teachers. The teachers of a few of the 
towns attend and take part in the institutes when held in their own 
town, but the lack of pay for attendance as well as penalty for 
non-attendance causes them to be irregular and to feel less responsi- 
bility for the work. The town schools, however, have their own 
teachers' meetings varying in number from three during the year 
to one each week, and in length from twenty minutes to two and 



86 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

one-half hours. The average number of meetings of the teachers 
of the towns was sixteen or about one in every two weeks. The 
average length of these meetings was one hour and five minutes. 
It was found that the whole time of these meetings in twenty 
per cent of the towns was devoted to discussion of the routine work 
of the school, forty-four per cent divided the time, devoting about 
one-third of the time to consideration of local affairs and two-thirds 
to study and discussion of professional work, and twenty-eight 
per cent gave entire time to professional study. When this showing 
is compared with what the township district and consolidated school 
teachers are doing, we see that one-fourth of the town teachers 
spend only as much as one-third the time in meetings for profes- 
sional improvement as the former, forty- four per cent spend about 
one- fourth the time while twenty-seven per cent spend no time at 
all in work that would stimulate interest and develop a professional 
attitude. 

Cities vary greatly and to a certain extent according to size, 
in provisions made for professional advancement of teachers in 
service. A few cities in which only short monthly business meetings 
were held ofifer no better advantages than did the poorest group 
of town schools. Other cities were found in which regular bi- 
weekly meetings were held. Alternate meetings were addressed by 
specialists in the various fields of education and the programs of 
the other meetings consisted of talks by the superintendents and 
papers read by teachers, followed by general discussions. In addi- 
tion to these meetings regular grade meetings were held at which 
the problems and plan of work for the particular grade were pre- 
sented and discussed and the supervisors of the special lines of 
work gave plans and instructions for carr}ang on the work in their 
particular subjects. The average number of general meetings for 
the teachers in city schools for the year was twenty-one with an 
average length of session of one hour and five minutes each. 
Twelve per cent of the schools devoted the entire time to announce- 
ments and routine work of the school, twenty-one per cent divided 
the time, giving a short period for routine work followed by longer 
period given to a consideration of the larger problems of education 
and sixty-six per cent spent the entire time in professional work of 
some sort. The superintendents of schools in which no time of 
the general meetings was given to routine work of the school, attend 
to such matters themselves by keeping in touch with the teachers by 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 87 

means of mimeographed announcements and instructions, reports 
received from teachers from time to time and conferences with the 
teachers most vitally concerned in any particular problem of the 
school. The professional study of the city teachers is neither so 
systematic nor does it require so much study on their part as that 
done by the rural and consolidated school teachers, but on account 
of community of interests and initiative and ability of those in 
charge, the results are more satisfactory and far-reaching. 

Medical Inspection 

The introduction of medical inspection into the schools of 
Indiana followed the same course that many of the progressive 
movements in education have taken. Some steps were taken in 
this work at first by a few of the more progressive schools of the 
state, enlarging the functions of the local board of health and 
utilizing the proffered services of some of the local professional 
men, followed by mandatory legislation for the larger cities and 
permissive legislation for other school corporations. At the present 
time permissive legislation only, obtains for all school corporations 
except Indianapolis, the one city of the state with a population of 
more than one hundred thousand. In 1909 a law was enacted 
requiring the board of health and charities of cities having a popu- 
lation of more than one hundred thousand to make medical inspec- 
tion from time to time of all persons attending, or employed in or 
about, all public, private or parochial schools in such city. The law 
authorized the board to prescribe rules and regulations concerning 
the number and character of inspections, prohibit the presence of 
anyone whose health is such that his presence will be injurious 
to himself or others and appoint competent physicians and district 
nurses with visitorial power. The law further provides that the 
city council shall levy a tax of one-half cent on each one hundred 
dollars to carry on this work. 

The permissive legislation enacted in 191 1 provides "That school 
trustees and township trustees are permitted and recommended to 
institute medical inspection of school children at any time, the said 
trustees may require teachers to annually test the sight and hearing 
of all school children under their charge, the said tests and uses 
thereof to be made according to rules hereafter authorized." Medi- 
cal inspection is defined as including the testing of sight and hearing 
of school children and the "inspection of said children by school 



88 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

physicians for diseases, disabilities, decayed teeth and other defects 
which may reduce efficiency or tend to prevent their receiving the 
full benefits of school work." The law provides for the appoint- 
ment of one school physician for each school corporation ; or two 
or more corporations may unite and employ one physician, but he 
must not have more than two thousand children under his charge. 
The man appointed must be a licensed physician, be informed and 
skilled in medical inspection of children, informed in the health laws 
and health rules of the state board of health, shall be temperate, 
able-bodied, cleanly in person, not addicted to drugs and be of good 
moral character. The compensation of the school physician is de- 
termined by the appointing trustee or trustees. The duties of a school 
physician, when appointed, are set forth in detail and are man- 
datory so that no one is exempt from the examination by him except 
on a certified statement of a reputable physician that he has made 
a thorough examination of the child and notified the parents of the 
results of such examination. The state board of health and state 
board of education are authorized to jointly formulate rules and 
regulations for the detailed enforcement of the provisions of 
this law. 

The medical authorities who exercised control over the school 
before the enactment of the law for medical inspection and at the 
present time in school corporations where no school physician has 
been appointed, is the board of health. This board exercises juris- 
diction over schools only when such action is necessary to prevent 
the spread of disease and to see that school buildings have been 
properly fumigated after having been occupied by children with 
contagious diseases. The law providing for the appointment of 
school physicians had been on the statutes only a short time when 
the data for this investigation were collected, though a number of 
schools had some form of medical inspection prior to its enactment. 
No evidence was found indicating that the schools of rural districts 
and towns intended to introduce medical inspection. Eleven per 
cent of the consolidated schools and twenty-one per cent of the city 
schools have some form of medical inspection, which may be classi- 
fied into three almost equal groups. The first being composed of 
the schools in which the tests are made by the teachers, the second 
is made up of schools in which the teachers make certain tests of 
all the children and a physician examines cases referred to him by 
teachers or, as sometimes happens, physicians volunteer their 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 89 



services and examine all children of the school. The third group 
is composed of the schools in which there is a regularly appointed 
school physician who performs the duties prescribed for him by 
law. In the schools composing this group," the school physician 
examined all children at the beginning of the school year and re- 
ported to parents any defects discovered. He made further exami- 
nations of all children sent to him by the teachers and principals 
from time to time and kept a record of all examinations made and 
reports sent to parents. A few schools reported dental inspection 
apart from the regular medical inspection but such cases were 
where dentists volunteered their services and the work was not 
followed up or sufficiently systematic to be very effective. 

While this movement for the preservation of the health of chil- 
dren is just beginning there is not sufficient data available for relia- 
ble inferences, yet there is enough to indicate that the consolidated 
and city schools are more responsive to the movement for genuine 
medical inspection. 

School and Community Activities 
Since the question of making a wider use of the school plant 
and extending the socializing influence of the school is receiving 
so much attention in educational discussions, an effort was made 
to learn of all the work of the schools included in this study along 
these lines. The results obtained were rather meagre and justify 
only one conclusion, namely, the school organized as a social center 
is exceptional and is characteritsic of no particular type of schools. 
The results obtained are given in Table xxxi which, taking the 
city schools as an example, are to be read as follows : Out of the 

TABLE XXXI 

School .^nd Community Activities 





Number of organi- 
zation 


Number of 

meetings per 

month 


Per cent of pupils 
taking part 


Patrons' meetings per 
year 





















a 




R 


D. 


a 
u 


















13 


0) 

a 


fl> 





0) 











JQ ^ 





S- 


RP 


c 


II) 





V 


t- 


i) 


u 










(3 






c 



















c 




r. 










H 


^ 





H 


hU 





H 


b 


.-. 




^ " 




s 


iz; 





^ 


H 


fa 


U. 


K B 


Township 


30 


30 
























27 


2 


1 










Consolidated 


17 


13 


3 


1 




4 


1 




2 


1 


1 






11 


2 


2 


1 


1 






Town 


25 


12 


10 


2 




6 


4 


1 


3 


2 


2 


2 


1 


21 


2 








1 


1 


City 


24 


10 


4 


6 


4 


13 


10 


2 


8 


3 


1 


2 




14 


3 


3 




1 




3 



90 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

twenty- four cities investigated, ten had no student activities at all 
in the high school ; four had one student organization each ; six 
had two ; four had three or more such organizations. Of the total 
number of organizations found, thirteen held one meeting each; 
ten held two meetings ; and two, four meetings per month. Eight 
of the high schools having such student activities enrolled fifteen 
per cent or less of the students in attendance ; three enrolled 
sixteen to twenty-five per cent; one, twenty-five to fifty per 
cent; and two, fifty to seventy-five per cent of the student body. 
Fourteen of the twenty-four cities held no patron meetings ; three 
held one ; three held two ; one held four ; and three held six during 
the year. 

A percentile table is unnecessary to show that there is little 
constructive work along these lines to be found anywhere. While 
the township district schools report no student organizations as 
such, we know that quite a number give special programs and the 
like on Friday afternoons, which, in a way, is comparable to the 
more definitely organized activities in the high schools of the other 
types of schools studied. Neither do we find any definite effort, 
with three exceptions, to arouse greater interest in the schools 
among the patrons. It is quite a general practice, however, for 
each school to give some entertainment or hold some kind of a 
social to which the young people of the community and the patrons 
are invited. The purpose of this is usually to raise money 
for the school library. In one case a teacher made an exhibit of 
the work of the pupils and invited the patrons to spend an afternoon 
in observing the work of the school. This work is in a way com- 
parable to what is found in more definitely organized form in 
consolidated schools. The predominating type of organizations 
among consolidated schools is the debating society and agricultural 
club. The meetings to which the patrons are invited also take the 
form of exhibition of the work in manual training and in agricul- 
ture, such as a corn show or stock judging contest, and the like. 

Among the town and city schools the predominating type of 
student activities outside of some form of athletic organization 
which is more or less common, is the debating society, which is 
greatly stimulated by the triangular debates held among schools of 
each vicinity. This form of organization, however, is not found in 
more than fifty per cent of the schools. The majority of the patrons' 
meetings, which are by no means common among the schools, take 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 91 

the form of an exhibit at which is displayed the work of the various 
departments. It is no unusual occurrence for the superintendent 
or principal and teachers to invite visiting patrons to contribute 
to the school library, either by donating books or money which may 
be used for the purchase of books or to aid the school in some other 
kind of movement which the "school has under consideration. It is 
needless to add that this does not encourage attendance. 

One town school and one city school were found that were ex- 
ceptional in both student and community activities. Each had work 
that was definitely planned and carried out. The student activities 
were so organized as to include the majority of all the high school 
pupils, were under the control of the students themselves and pro- 
vided for the social as well as intellectual needs of the pupils taking 
part. The superintendents of these two schools had been able to 
arouse the interest of the patrons in the work of the school and to 
extend its influence in the various social functions of the commu- 
nity. There were special clubs for both men and women, social 
activities for the young people of the community, and a committee 
of business men to cooperate with the principal and superintendent 
in giving some vocational guidance to the boy of the community. 
The local lecture course was organized and maintained by the 
school. The result of all this work was that these schools were 
looked to for leadership and promulgation of all community 
activities. 



CHAPTER VI 
School Statistics 

One of the biggest problems the boards of education in the 
larger centers of population frequently have to face is to provide 
school facilities for an increasing and oftentimes, a shifting popu- 
lation within their jurisdiction. The opposite situation often con- 
fronts officials of rural schools where, in all older communities, 
there is a migration from the country to towns and cities. With 
the former it is a problem of providing additional and oftentimes 
temporary school buildings, equipment, etc., while with the latter 
it is a problem of closing some schools that at one time were well 
attended, consolidating adjoining districts, providing for trans- 
portation of pupils in opposition to community pride and local 
prejudices. 

The change in population in the different corporations during 
the past ten years will reveal the nature and significance of this 
problem in the different types of schools. The statistics with refer- 
ence to this point are given in the tables which follow. These tables 
also give data for determining the ratio of school census to total 
population, the efficiency of the different types of schools in retain- 
ing the pupils enrolled, the average number in daily attendance, 
the number completing the grades and the high school and the 
length of school year in days. 

In order to determine the number of children of legal school 
age in any school corporation enrolled in school, it was necessary 
to make corrections for the transfers from one school corporation 
to another. These corrections were made by determining the differ- 
ence between the amount of money paid out by each corporation 
for transfers and the amount received for the same purpose and 
dividing the difference in the case of township district schools, by 
two multiplied by the number of months the schools were in session 
and adding this quotient to or subtracting from the number of 
pupils enrolled in the schools of that corporation. If a greater 
amount was paid out than received for transfers, the number was 
added to the enrollment of the schools of that corporation, if the 
reverse, the number was subtracted. Two is taken as the divisor 
because two dollars per month is the maximum amount allowed by 
law for tuition of grade pupils of one corporation enrolled in the 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 93 



TABLE XXXII 

Population and School Statistics of Townships with District Schools 



a 

:a 

1 

S3 

1 


1 

'Co 
a—I 

■32 
&a 


a 

"XJo 

cSO 

31 


Pupils in parochial 
schools 


3 
C 

§ 


in 


S 8 

J3 a-a 

u.O u 


Children enrolled in 
schools of corporation 


1 

<-T3 


(U 

1 
60 

Is 


3 

.£P£ 


1 

OT3 

g " 

1-1 Si 


1 


790 


850 




1 

210 


180 


158 


126 


11 




140 


2 


2410 


2657 




834 


519 


519 


488 


32 




135 


3 


873 


1049 




301 


200 


197 


166 






120 


4 


1687 


1895 




475 


399 


297 


207 


17 




115 


5 


775 


728 




276 


173 


148 


124 


14 




112 


6 


3335 


3686 




901 


684 


678 


475 


25 




120 


7 


889 


875 




228 


198 


185 


126 


4 




140 


8 


1670 


1794 




453 


223 


222 


177 


5 




140 


9 


824 


812 




255 


179 


164 


129 


7 




140 


10 


1782 


2106 




558 


490 


430 


341 


20 




140 


11 


1137 


1197 




406 


312 


159 


126 


1 




120 


12 


1185 


1165 




374 


277 


195 


164 


12 




120 


13 


1165 


1286 




322 


261 


239 


184 


19 




150 


14 


522 


541 




155 


130 


112 


73 


4 




140 


15 


536 


531 




147 


102 


96 


76 


4 




140 


16 


1505 


1541 




397 


259 


239 


191 


21 




130 


17 


959 


1052 




274 


214 


244 


207 


12 




160 


18 


1000 


827 




274 


220 


212 


150 






120 


19 


717 


579 




255 


136 


145 


99 


13 




180 


20 


1483 


1708 




409 


154 


154 


110 


15 




140 


21 


1053 


1265 




302 


263 


251 


210 


18 




130 


22 


1897 


1842 




608 


377 


346 


255 


12 




140 


23 


2671 


2859 




759 


683 


543 


413 


21 




160 


24 


1114 


1116 




305 


218 


210 


151 








25 


659 


706 




182 


151 


138 


117 


4 




140 


26 


2413 


2643 




723 


625 


450 


372 


17 




140 


27 


1519 


1900 




426 


380 


305 


209 


15 




160 


28 


2727 


2991 




789 


605 


435 


342 


23 




140 


29 


1222 


1479 




354 


287 


279 


198 


3 




140 


30 


774 


811 




192 


172 


158 


108 


10 




160 



schools of another. In case of consolidated, town, and city school 
corporations, three multiplied by the number of months the schools 
were in session was taken as the divisor, as it is the average of the 
maximum amount allowed by law for grade and high school pupils. 
This somewhat arbitrary method of correction was necessary, since 
there was no means of determining what per cent of transfers were 
grade pupils and what per cent were high school pupils, neither were 



94 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE XXXIII 
Population and School Statistics of Townships with Consolidated Schools 













a 












lo. 


o2 
.25; 


g^ 


8 

& 




2 — 


"3 
a o c 


•3s 


-a 


o 

O U) 


1 


11 
ll 


|| 
Ho 




S.2 


•A a 


1^ 

iz:og 


§ o 2 
T3ja o 

5.2 8 




"2 3 




■2.S 
h3 >, 


1 


1146 


1160 




298 


268 


213 


180 


15 




140 


2 


641 


641 




169 


129 


124 


102 


5 




160 


3 


1738 


1643 




436 




452 


300 


27 


8 


160 


4 


1070 


1119 




285 


251 


239 


202 


18 




120 


5 


1131 


1173 




298 


196 


243 


183 


16 


8 


160 


6 


1904 


1869 




450 


387 


388 


329 


24 


11 


160 


7 


1594 


1550 




409 




417 


292 


22 


13 


155 


8 


1428 


1591 




392 


317 


347 


321 


23 


15 


160 


9 


888 


1031 




217 


182 


174 


153 


6 


5 


140 


10 


2234 


2564 




536 


467 


469 


412 


23 


12 


160 


11 


776 


842 




179 


152 


166 


162 


5 


5 


170 


12 


652 


657 




171 


142 


154 


118 


6 




160 


13 


873 


973 




213 


186 


190 


145 


10 


5 


160 


14 


691 


684 




160 


145 


157 


134 


9 




140 


IS 


525 


561 




129 


82 


87 


74 


10 


4 


140 


16 


613 


736 




178 


137 


137 


118 


6 




170 


17 


985 


1095 




262 


187 


189 


154 









there any data as to the exact amount of tuition charged per pupil 
by each school corporation. The results of this method of correc- 
tion are found in the columns with the headings, "Number of chil- 
dren of corporation enrolled in school". To illustrate the above 
method let us take number one of the township district school. The 
number of children enrolled in the schools of the corporation is 158. 
The amount of money paid out by this township for transfers was 
$320 and the amount received was $14 or a difference of $306. 
The schools of this corporation were in session seven months, hence 
the divisor was 2 X 7 or 14. 306 divided by 14 equals 21.8. Since 
more money was paid out than received it means that there were 
twenty-two more children transferred from than to the schools of 
that corporation and hence this number must be added to the num- 
ber enrolled in the school of that corporation, which gives 180. 

While an effort was made to secure reports of the number of 
children enrolled in parochial schools, no reliable data were avail- 
able since these schools are not under state supervision and few 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 95 



TABLE XXXIV 

Population and School Statistics of Towns 









_ 




S 












a 
o 
"o 

3 


a 
2 

IS 

If 

f2^ 


1 

§.2 
o 

— & 


C4 

IS 
2 
o. 
e 

il 


J3 C 
C/3 O 




13 

c o a 

^ rfi O 

111 
O.S8 


IS 


Mo! 

Mm 




« 
-a a 


1 

5 S 


1 


1289 


2116 




397 


279 


329 


271 


19 


93 


160 


2 


439 


476 




135 


113 


126 


84 


2 




136 


3 


911 


832 




191 


150 


211 


164 


7 


7 


180 


4 


864 


915 




192 


137 


214 


170 


11 


10 


160 


5 


1215 


1503 




327 


259 


385 


319 


18 




140 


6 


425 


465 




87 


78 


108 


92 


7 




140 


7 


1428 


1567 




367 


313 


346 


288 


19 


17 


165 


8 


961 


908 




275 


208 


259 


202 


13 


7 


160 


9 


1115 


625 




349 


260 


419 


356 




2 


160 


10 


827 






281 


185 


189 


142 


1 




140 


11 


1166 


1287 




314 


214 


334 


301 


12 


19 


160 


12 


936 


832 




178 


(209) 


226 


192 


14 


4 


160 


13 


1233 


1088 




280 


208 


264 


221 


17 




160 


14 


1148 


1176 




260 


220 


256 


193 


15 


4 


180 


15 


1235 


1275 




312 


260 


343 


308 


5 


16 


180 


16 


1608 


974 




422 


(534) 


574 


482 


29 


18 


160 


17 


1064 


923 




347 


299 


385 


337 


20 


14 


160 


18 


1293 


1512 




297 


(418) 


437 


385 


37 


18 


170 


19 


880 


773 




472 


281 


288 


237 


37 


7 


160 


20 


1757 


1638 




451 


361 


438 


367 


21 


14 


170 


21 


454 


557 




108 


92 


131 


109 




4 


155 


22 


859 


917 




253 


231 


281 


248 


15 


12 


160 


23 


1167 


1244 




266 


237 


289 


276 


17 


9 


180 


24 


675 


614 




179 


156 


214 


187 


11 


19 


160 


25 


899 


975 




221 


179 


279 


237 


14 


8 


160 



submitted any information. It is definitely known that a number 
of children of a greater number of corporations attended parochial 
schools than is indicated in these tables. The data for the length 
of school year are included in these tables for lack of better place 
for the same. 

Tables xxxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii, and xxxix are derived from 
the preceding tables and show the nature and extent of change 
in population in each school corporation in each type considered, 
the ratio of enrollment to school census, ratio of daily attendance 
to enrollment, and the per cent of average daily attendance com- 
pleting the grades and high school. 



96 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE XXXV 

Population anb School Statistics of Cities 



1 
1 


c 
.2 

Is 

^>> 

rt.ti 


1 

OS 


3 
IS 

o 

I 

.S 
II 


If 


d 

<u ^^ 
>-. o 
-a o 

O rt S 

lli 

g8| 


Z o 

lis 




II 


J. 


1 
^^ 

j3a 
^Z 
gg 


1 


3919 


3396 


642 


886 


642 


849 


703 


58 


20 


180 


2 


3335 


3005 


510 


799 


510 


616 


498 


32 


33 


180 


3 


8838 


6460 




2975 




1980 


1530 






180 


4 


9340 


7786 


1934 


2902 


1934 


2139 


1743 




52 


180 


5 


7738 


6836 




1894 


1245 


1314 


1037 


34 


31 


180 


6 


6229 


2918 




1710 


1165 


1204 


928 


28 


25 


180 


7 


8813 


8130 


270 


2142 


1572 


1731 


1348 


80 


69 


180 


8 


2526 


2336 




640 


362 


430 


342 


20 


13 


180 


9 


8514 


7810 




2040 


1518 


1580 


1300 


68 


61 


180 


10 


5420 


5034 




1542 


924 


1089 


880 


52 


48 


180 


11 


2464 


2527 




744 


406 


462 


369 


25 


13 


177 


12 


10412 


10774 


107 


4451 


1802 


1850 


1408 


69 


31 


180 


13 


17010 


10609 




4337 


2997 


3419 


2191 


64 


69 


178 


14 


10525 


7113 




3559 


1531 


1603 


1179 


31 


34 


190 


15 


3930 


4326 


118 


1063 


591 


656 


568 


24 


31 


180 


16 


4529 


4038 




1375 


651 


1085 


893 


51 


32 


180 


17 


5073 


4792 




1278 


901 


1053 


878 


47 


29 


180 


18 


2915 


2823 




760 


419 


644 


496 




21 


180 


19 


5130 


4798 




1349 


1065 


1165 


998 


45 


23 


180 


20 


4925 


4541 




1197 


804 


969 


780 


48 


40 


170 


21 


4115 


3118 




1103 


950 


1106 


914 




42 


180 


22 


4075 


3764 




1227 


921 


1006 


897 


33 


29 


180 


23 


7854 


8551 




2482 


1323 


1483 


1341 


47 


42 


180 


24 


4266 


3705 




1159 




753 


5901 






180 


25 


20081 


18116 




5678 


3016 


3075 


2470 


140 


45 


185 



In fairly stable communities the number of graduates from the 
grades and high school may be taken as a fair index of the power 
of the schools of any corporation to retain the pupils enrolled. 
While we have sufficient data with reference to number of 
graduates, we were unable to determine the ratio of the number of 
graduates to the average daily attendance in the grades and high 
school separately, since the reports gave the average daily attend- 
ance of grades and high school together. The ratios of the 
graduates in both grades and high school to the total average daily 
attendance in each school corporation necessarily favor school 
corporations with large high school attendance and comparatively 



TABLE XXXVI 

Changes in Population and Statistics of Township District Schools 
Given in Per cent 





Change in population 




"o 


M tS 


o 
bo Jg 


a 


in ten years 


^1 


o 


% 
^■^ 




o 






^•S"-, 




g 

3 


8 
Pi 


11! 
Ill 


og 
a " 

Cm u 






1 


-60 


-7.0 


26.6 


79.6 


79.6 


8.7 


2 


-247 


-9.6 


34.5 


62.0 


94.0 


6.7 


3 


-176 


-16.3 


34.5 


64.7 


84.2 




4 


-208 


-11.1 


28.2 


84.0 


69.8 


8.1 


5 


47 


6.0 


35.6 


62.7 


83.8 


11.1 


6 


-351 


-9.6 


27.2 


76.0 


70.0 


5.3 


7 


14 


1.6 


25.7 


75.0 


68.1 


3.2 


8 


-124 


-6.9 


27.1 


76.1 


79.8 


2.8 


9 


12 


1.5 


28.5 


88.0 


78.6 


5 4 


10 


-324 


-15.4 


31.3 


76.6 


79.2 


5.9 


11 


-60 


-5.0 


35.8 


78.0 


52.1 


.8 


12 


20 


1.7 


31.5 


78.0 


84.0 


7.3 


13 


-121 


-9.4 


27.6 


84.0 


77.1 


10.3 


14 


-19 


-3.5 


29.6 


68.3 


65.2 


5.5 


15 


5 


.9 


27.5 


65.1 


79.1 


5.3 


16 


-36 


-2.3 


26 4 


78.0 


79.9 


11.0 


17 


-93 


-8.8 


28.6 


78.5 


85.0 


5.8 


18 


173 


17.3 


27 4 


80.2 


70.8 




19 


138 


19.3 


35.5 


53.2 


68.3 


13.1 


20 


-225 


-13.2 


27.5 


37.8 


7.14 


13.6 


21 


-212 


-16.8 


28.2 


87.0 


83.6 


8.6 


22 


55 


2.9 


32.1 


62.2 


73.7 


5.3 


23 


-188 


-6.6 


27.3 


90.6 


76.0 


5.1 


24 


-2 


-.2 


27 4 


72.0 


71.8 




25 


-47 


-6.6 


26.7 


82.9 


84.8 


3 4 


26 


-230 


-8.7 


30.0 


86.2 


82.7 


4.6 


27 


-381 


-20.1 


28.1 


89.0 


68.3 


7 4 


28 


-264 


-8.8 


28.9 


76.7 


78.6 


6.7 


29 


-257 


-17.6 


28 4 


81.2 


71.1 


1.5 


30 


-37 


-4.5 


25.8 


89.7 


64.1 


9.3 



[97] 



98 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE XXXVII 
Changes in Population and Statistics of Township Consolidated 
Schools Given in Per cent 



1 

a 


Change in population 
in ten years 




■§;§ 

o2 


"op 














"0 

iz; 


1 

3 

is 






§i 
ft 


4_)* 

fl-O 

v V a 

CO 




1 


-14 


-1.2 


26.1 


89.7 


84.5 


8.3 


2 








26 4 


76.8 


82.0 


4.9 


3 


95 


5.5 


25.1 




66.3 


11.7 


4 


-49 


-4.6 


26.6 


88.0 


84.8 


8.9 


5 


-40 


-3.5 


26 4 


65.6 


75.1 


13.1 


6 


35 


1.8 


24.6 


86.2 


84.6 


10.6 


7 


44 


2.8 


25.7 




70.1 


11.9 


8 


-63 


-A A 


27.5 


81.0 


92.8 


11.8 


9 


-143 


-16.1 


24.5 


83.8 


88.1 


7.2 


10 


-330 


-14.9 


24.0 


87.5 


87.8 


8.0 


11 


-66 


-8.5 


23.1 


85.0 


97.8 


6.6 


12 


-5 


-.8 


26.1 


83.1 


77.8 


5.1 


13 


-100 


-11.5 


24 4 


87.1 


75.1 


10.2 


14 


7 


1.1 


23.2 


90.6 


85.2 


6.7 


15 


-36 


-6.8 


24.6 


63.8 


85.0 


18.9 


16 


-123 


-20.1 


29.0 


77.1 


86.3 


5.1 


17 


-110 


-11.2 


26.6 


71.3 


81.3 





small grade attendance. Since, however, the town and consolidated 
schools are very similar in this respect, it is doubtful if the relative 
standing of the two in the above table would be changed if we had 
exact data concerning this point. 

Table xl shows the central tendencies and deviations in data 
given in the preceding tables and provides a basis for comparison 
of the standing of the different corporations and schools in the 
different phases considered. It will be seen from this table that 
there is a decrease in population in all types of school corporations 
except the city, in which there is a marked increase. While there 
is an increase in a few of the corporations of township district, 
consolidated and town schools, this increase is more than offset 
by the number which show a decreasing population as well as the 
amount of the decrease. The total change in all the townships with 
district schools was a decrease of 3,250 or 5.7 per cent. The de- 
crease in townships with consolidated schools was a total of 838 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 99 



TABLE XXXVIII 

Changes in Population and Statistics of Town Schools Given in 

Per cent 



1 


Change in population 








—3 


u 




B 


in ten years 


1-s 





1:^ 


^8-S 


fc 




13 "1 

la 
11 


It 


5s 

'oa 
v <u d 


S92 



"0 

J 

15 


& 

3 


a 

Ah 


•oS|J 
•s. 0. 


1 


-827 


-63.8 


30.7 


70.0 


82.6 


7.7 


2 


-37 


-8 4 


30.8 


83.6 


66.7 


2.4 


3 


79 


8.7 


20.9 


78.5 


77.5 


8.6 


4 


-51 


-5.9 


22.2 


71.3 


79.5 


12 4 


5 


-288 


-23.9 


26.6 


73.0 


82.9 


5.7 


6 


-40 


-9 4 


20.5 


89.9 


85.0 


7.6 


7 


-139 


-9.7 


25 4 


85.6 


83.2 


12 4 


8 


53 


5.5 


28.6 


75.8 


78.1 


9.9 


9 


490 


44.0 


314 


74.7 


85.2 




10 






34.0 


66.0 


75.1 




11 


-121 


-10.2 


26.9 


68.0 


90.2 


10.2 


12 


104 


11.1 


18.0 




85.0 


9.3 


13 


145 


11.8 


22.8 


74.1 


83.8 


7.7 


14 


-28 


-2.8 


22.6 


84.8 


75.2 


10.0 


15 


-40 


-3.2 


25.3 


83.2 


89.9 


6.8 


16 


634 


52.2 


26.3 




84.1 


9.8 


17 


141 


13.2 


32.6 


86.1 


87.5 


10.1 


18 


-219 


-17.5 


23.0 




88.1 


14.3 


19 


27 


3.0 




59.8 


82.2 


18.6 


20 


119 


6.8 


25.8 


80.0 


83.9 


9.6 


21 


-104 


-23.0 


23.8 


86.2 


83.1 




22 


-58 


-6.8 


29.5 


91.2 


88.1 


10.9 


23 


-77 


-6.7 


22.9 


89.0 


95.3 


9 4 


24 


61 


9.0 


26.5 


87.1 


87.5 


16.1 


25 


-76 


-8.5 


24.6 


80.8 


85.0 


9.3 



or 4.4 per cent. The number of towns with a decrease in population 
sHghtly exceeded the number with an increase in population during 
the preceding ten years. The total change was a decrease of 262 
or one per cent. Only one-sixth of the cities show a decrease in 
population, while the total change was an increase of 25,276 or 
15.5 per cent. It will also be noted that the townships with district 
schools have a greater number of children of legal school age in 
proportion to the total population than the consolidated town or 
city schools, while the city ranks second and townships with con- 
solidated schools and towns have about equal ratios. This would 



lOO A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE XXXrX 
Changes m PoptrLAxiON and Statistics of City Schools Given 
IN Per cent 



>% 


Change in population 
in ten years 


3I 

■" 
""3 8 


■3 


-g-g 

S3 


III 

" £ S 

(1^ Sis 


rt S •" 60 




b 
^ 

1 




sllL 

PL, CS tS 6OM 


1 


523 


13.4 


22.6 


72.8 


82.8 


11.3 


2 


330 


10.0 


24.0 


64.0 


82.2 


13.2 


3 


2378 


26.8 


33.6 




77.2 




4 


1554 


16.6 


31.2 


66.5 


81.5 




5 


902 


11.6 


24.5 


65.8 


78.5 


6.3 


6 


3311 


53.2 


27.4 


68.3 


77.2 


5.7 


7 


683 


77.5 


24.1 


83.6 


77.9 


11.1 


8 


190 


4.3 


25.4 


.56.7 


79.5 


9.6 


9 


704 


8.2 


23.8 


74.4 


82.2 


9.9 


10 


386 


7.1 


27.8 


59.8 


81.1 


11.4 


11 


-53 


-2.2 


31.3 


54.8 


79.9 


10.4 


12 


-362 


-3.5 


42.7 


40.8 


76.3 


7.1 


13 


6401 


37.5 


25.4 


69.0 


64.0 


6.1 


14 


3412 


32.5 


33.8 


42.8 


73.8 


5.6 


15 


-396 


-10.1 


27.1 


55.5 


86.7 


9.7 


16 


491 


10.8 


30.2 


47.5 


82.3 


9.3 


17 


281 


5.5 


25.1 


70.7 


83.4 


8.6 


18 


91 


3.1 


26.1 


55.1 


77.1 




19 


332 


6.5 


26.3 


78.1 


85.6 


6.8 


20 


384 


7.8 


24.3 


67.3 


80.8 


11.3 


21 


997 


24.1 


26.8 


86.0 


82.3 




22 


311 


7.7 


30.2 


75.0 


88.1 


6.9 


23 


-697 


-8.9 


31.8 


53.6 


90.6 


6.6 


24 


561 


13.2 


27.1 




78.2 




25 


1865 


9.3 


28.4 


53.3 


81.0 


7.8 



seem to indicate that the population of townships with consoUdated 
schools and towns is made up more largely of older residents, many 
of whom have perhaps retired from active business and whose 
children are beyond legal school age. 

The statistics bear out the contention made by advocates of 
consolidated schools that consolidation means a larger enrollment 
of children in the schools of the township, since the ratio of enroll- 
ment to school census for consolidated schools is 81.1 per cent, 
while that of the town is 79.5 per cent, township district schools 
78.1, and that of the city schools is only 61 per cent. It will also be 
noted that the variation for consolidated schools is less than that 



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[lOl] 



I02 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

for any other type. While the enrollment in consolidated schools 
surpasses that in all other types, it will be noted that in average 
daily attendance the consolidated schools rank second to the town 
schools, but excel both city and township district schools. This is 
probably due to the fact that town school corporations are small 
and offer few inducements to older boys and girls to drop out to 
engage in some economic pursuit. Taking the tables as they are 
given, we note that the town schools rank first in the retention of 
their pupils and that the consolidated schools rank second, while 
the township district and city schools are about equal. 

The average length of the school year for township district 
schools is 139 days with a variation of 14 days as compared with 
1 56. 1 days for consolidated schools with a variation of 10, 160.6 
days for town schools, and 179 for city schools. 

In conclusion it may be said that the consolidated schools are 
found in townships in which there is less decrease in population 
than in townships with district schools, and in townships with older 
residents and comparatively fewer children of legal school age ; 
that consolidation increases the enrollment, average daily attend- 
ance, the power of the school to retain its pupils, and the length 
of the school year, but the consolidated school does not equal 
its pupils, which surpasses both the township district and city 
schools with reference to these points. 



CHAPTER VII 
School Finances — Receipts 

The question of financial support of schools is a vital one and 
will bear much study. No investigation concerning the educational 
situation in the different types of schools would be complete, which 
did not take into consideration the corporation wealth upon which 
the financial support of the school is based, the distribution of the 
total receipts of each corporation, the ratio of the amount raised 
for schools to the amount raised for other purposes, and a compari- 
son of the amount received for tuition or teachers' salaries, with 
the amount received for buildings and equipment, as well as a study 
of the distribution of the state funds among the schools of 
each type. The data on which the first part of this phase of the 
investigation is based, is the property valuation and tax levies in 
each corporation, and the distribution of the state funds and other 
indirect receipts as given in total number of dollars received from 
each source. 

The tax levies, instead of the total amounts received or the 
budget for the year, are made the basis for comparison on account 
of availability and completeness of the data. The total receipts for 
each item, if available, would be a little more satisfactory basis for 
comparison, since the somewhat variable factor, poll tax, which is 
not included when we consider property tax alone, would be elimi- 
nated. This, however, is a very minor factor since there are no 
wide variations among different corporations and the property tax 
without the poll tax is a better index of the support given the 
various accounts or departments in each corporation. The number 
of polls and amount assessed were given, but there was nothing to 
show how many paid the assessment. A comparison of the amount 
of tax levied on each poll by the state, county, and local corporation, 
shows little or no difference in the township with district schools 
and the township with consolidated schools, while the amount of the 
levy by cities is greater than either, and the amount of the levy by 
towns exceeds that of the cities. It will be observed that the same 
relationship exists among the various corporations in the amount 
of the tax levied on property in the different types considered, so 
that the elimination of poll tax in consideration of support of 
schools will not affect the results materially. 



I04 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

The tables giving the property valuation and tax levies differ 
from preceding tables in that they are exact and complete and have 
been compiled from reports according to the specifications of the 
law governing the same and are thus free from the variations which 
might otherwise have been noticeable. This is one phase of the in- 
vestigation that is based on uniform reports and is a good illustra- 
tion of what might be expected if such uniformity prevailed in other 
departments. While the items given for the township and consoli- 
dated schools differ somewhat from those given for town and city 
corporations, the similarity is so great that valid comparisons are 
easily made. In the tables which follow, it will be observed that 
the first column calls for total assessed valuation less mortgage 
exemptions. It might be explained that there is a law in force in 
Indiana at the present time which permits any resident holding 
property on which there is a mortgage to file an affidavit with the 
county auditor, which will exempt such property from taxation to 
the amount of seven hundred dollars valuation, provided the mort- 
gage is equal to or greater than this amount. 

The total tax which any resident of the state pays is the sum 
total of the levies made by the state, county, and local corporation. 
The state tax for 191 1 was $0.3185 on each one hundred dollars 
valuation and was divided as follows : 

State $0.09 

Debt 015 

School 136 

State university and state normal school 0275 

Benevolent institutions 05 

This tax, as will be observed, is the same for all corporations. It 
should be explained that the state levy for schools is distributed in 
two ways. A part is given as special aid to those school corporations 
whose local taxes are not sufficient to maintain schools equal to the 
standard specified by law, and the remainder is distributed on the 
census basis. 

The county levy is the same for all corporations in each county. 
The local tax is levied, in the case of townships by the township 
trustee, and in the towns and cities by the town and city councils. 
In Table xliv it will be observed that the local tax is distributed 
as follows : Township, Tuition, Special School, Poor, Road, Gravel 
road, and all other purposes. The township levy is made for the 
purpose of meeting the general running expenses of a township and 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 105 

corresponds very closely to the corporation levy of the towns and 
cities. The salary of the trustee, the road supervisor, office expenses, 
traveling expenses, and the like, are paid from this fund. The 
tuition of pupils attending schools in other corporations may also 
be paid out of this fund. The tuition levy is made to pay the 
salaries of the teachers. The salaries of the advisory staff and the 
expenses of buildings and equipments are paid out of the special 
school fund. The distinction between roads and gravel roads is that 
the levy for "Roads" is for the purpose of maintaining all highways 
that have not been macadamized, while "Gravel roads" is the levy 
made to pay the bonds which were issued by a special vote of the 
citizens of the township for the purpose of building macadam roads. 
All levies for purely local purposes are given under the item "All 
other purposes". The distribution of local taxes in town and city 
corporations needs no explanation. 

Anyone interested in the taxes of the townships in which rural 
schools are maintained, will observe by study of Table xliv that 
there is little correlation between the assessed valuation of a cor- 
poration and the amount of the local tax for that corporation. 
A corporation with high valuation may have a high local levy, as 
in the case of township number two, or a low local levy, as in the 
case of township number twenty-eight, and in like manner it will 
be observed that a township with a low valuation may have a low 
tax levy, as in the case of township number fourteen, or a high local 
tax, as in the case of township number eighteen. If the size of the 
townships and the number of schools maintained were the same, 
these facts might justify an investigation, but since there is a con- 
siderable variation in the size of the townships and the density of 
the population, no inferences are justifiable on these data alone. The 
variability observed in the townships with district schools is also 
to be observed in the townships with consolidated schools, but not 
in such a marked degree. Notwithstanding the fact that the state 
levy is uniform in all corporations and that the variation in the 
county is not great, it will be observed that the total amount of 
taxes in towns greatly exceeds that in the townships, but is not equal 
to the total tax levies in the cities. The central tendencies and 
variations in the tax levies on one hundred dollars, is given in Table 
XLV. The variation in the amount of the county tax in the four 
types of schools considered is probably due to the additional office 
expenses necessary to keep the records of the counties in which 



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[III] 



112 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

large centers of population are located. The average levy by the 
county in the counties in which are located the township district 
schools is $0.4515, which is the same as in counties in which con- 
solidated schools are located, with the same variability, while the 
average county levy for the towns considered, is $0,485 and the city 
is $0,493 with a variability of $0.04. The central tendency of the 
local levies increases in the order in which the different corporations 
are given, that is, the township levies average $1.20 with a variability 
of $0,262, the consolidated at $1.61 with a variation of $0.23, and 
the local levy of the cities is $2.43 with a variation of $0.22. The 
same relationship exists among the totals of the different types 
of corporations, ranging from the central tendency $1.98 and a 
variability of $0.25 in the case of townships to an average of $3.25 
for cities with a variability of $0.33. The distribution of the local 
levies shows that the tax levy for school purposes in townships with 
consolidated schools, which averages $0,708 with a variability of 
$0,074 for the sum of the tuition and special school funds, is much 
greater than that in townships with district schools which average 
$0,465 with a variability of $0.07, but does not equal the tax levy for 
schools in cities which average $0,837 with a variability of $0,117, 
and that the levy for school purposes in towns, which average 
$0,915 with a variability of $0,095, exceeds that of all other 
types. The tax levy for the township or corporation purposes is 
lower in townships with consolidated schools than in townships 
with district schools. The tax levy in cities for the same purpose 
exceeds that of the towns. Notwithstanding the fact that it is gen- 
erally assumed that consolidated schools are located in townships 
with the better improved highways, it will be observed that the levy 
for roads in townships with district schools is $0,585 with a varia- 
bility of $0,145 as compared with a levy of $0.37 with a variability 
of $0.16 in townships with consolidated schools. The fact that the 
average levy for road or street purposes in towns, which is $0,447 
with a variability of $0,148, exceeds the levy for cities which is 
$0,302 with a variability of $0,141, seems somewhat unusual, but 
is probably due to the fact that the town as a center of population 
is located in townships which spend considerable money for ma- 
cadam roads yet do not have sufficient property within the cor- 
porations to equalize the tax levy for this purpose, as do the larger 
centers of population with greater property valuation. 







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HUHU 



TABLE XLVI 

Wealth per Capita School Population and Percentile Distribution of Tax 
Levies in Township with District Schools 



a 

1 

"S 

If 


T3 
0.60 


s 

s 


c 




0. 
C 

e2 


.o 

i 


1 


o 
o 

|1h 


i 
^ 


■i 

2 

1 
O 


1 

S 

a 

O 

< 


1 


$3371 


15.6 


21.4 


63.0 


6.7 


12.2 


13.0 


.8 


21.3 


46.0 




2 


1835 


11.5 


22.8 


65.7 


5.5 


22.0 


27.5 


1.1 


11.0 


33.0 




3 


2208 


13.5 


26.8 


59.7 


15.2 


21.5 


14.3 




10.6 


38.4 




4 


3052 


15.8 


21.4 


62.8 


8.7 


23.6 


10.3 


1.6 


31.5 


23.6 


.8 


5 


971 


14.3 


19.3 


61.4 


11.0 


18.2 


11.0 


1.4 


22.0 


36.4 




6 


1677 


11.3 


19.7 


69.0 


7.6 


16.4 


20.5 


1.5 


12.9 


41.1 




7 


2205 


13.1 


19.1 


67.8 


17.3 


18.4 


18.4 


1.3 


24.6 


18.4 


2.5 


8 


1641 


13.5 


22.2 


64.3 


6.6 


19.7 


19.7 




23.0 


31.0 




9 


3089 


19.3 


26.7 


54.0 


18.0 


18.0 


18.0 


1.2 


44.8 






10 


2527 


15.7 


19.4 


64.9 


7.5 


19.0 


11.5 




23.0 


39.0 




11 


1411 


18.3 


28.3 


53.4 


25.8 


12.9 


10.8 


2.1 


10.8 


37.6 




12 


2338 


19.8 


30.7 


49.5 


31.6 


6.3 


6.3 


1.2 


12.6 


42.0 




13 


3854 


20.6 


28.6 


50.8 


12.2 


23.1 


24.4 


3.7 


36.0 






14 


2893 


19.5 


19.2 


61.3 


17.0 


20.0 


20.0 


3.0 


40.0 






15 


6121 


18.9 


26.9 


54.2 


18.7 


26.4 


12.1 


5.5 


23.1 


11.0 


3.2 


16 


4230 


16.1 


19.4 


54.5 


12.8 


15.7 


7.8 




15.7 


44.9 


3.9 


17 


2490 


13.2 


15.8 


71.0 


5.8 


17.7 


29.4 


.6 


14.7 


31.8 




18 


1171 


12.4 


27.1 


60.5 


16.2 


16.2 


25.8 




22.6 


19.3 




19 


4204 


16.0 


22.3 


61.7 


12.3 


12.3 


20.5 




8.2 


46.7 




20 


4475 


16.5 


23.5 


60.0 


7.0 


17.4 


17.4 


1.7 


13.1 


39.1 


4.3 


21 


4674 


21.3 


25.6 


53.1 


10.1 


20.2 


15.2 


2.5 


22.8 


29.1 




22 


2350 


15.2 


22.6 


62.2 


9.2 


23.1 


23.1 


7.7 


23.1 


10.0 


3.8 


23 


3588 


18.5 


23.4 


58.1 


10.0 


26.0 


22.0 




10.0 


30.0 


2.0 


24 


3550 


21.7 


24.8 


53.5 


20.5 


25.6 


25.6 




28.3 






25 


5794 


16.3 


24.8 


58.9 


10.4 


22.0 


8.7 


.9 


24.6 


33.4 




26 


3318 


15.7 


17.3 


67.0 


7.4 


14.7 


33.2 


1.4 


11.8 


31.6 




27 


4483 


17.7 


26.8 


55.5 


14.0 


19.0 


22.0 




11.0 


34.0 




28 


4338 


19.7 


27.8 


52.5 


8.3 


18.8 


18.8 


4.7 




49.4 




29 


5481 


17.9 


33.9 


48.2 


11.6 


25.5 


29.1 


4.6 


11.6 


17.5 




30 


4184 


17.6 


25.2 


57.2 


16.5 


29.1 


23.4 


1.9 


29.1 







[114] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 115 



TABLE XLVII 

Wealth per Capita School Population and Percentile Distribution of Tax 
Levies in Township with Consolidated Schools 



'° 0. 


Q. bx) 








0. 












*~* en 


Eg 




4) 

iy5 


>> 

u 


1 


1 


a 
.0 

H 


|-3 

Ol in 




-a 

S. 


1| 
og 


^1 


1 


$5001 


13.6 


19.3 


67.1 


6.6 


12.7 


31.5 


1.3 


16.4 


31.5 




2 


6041 


14.4 


23.8 


61.8 


5.8 


18.5 


36.0 




5.8 


33.9 




3 


3995 


15.0 


18.5 


66.5 


7.1 


16.3 


35.5 




12.8 


28.4 




4 


3735 


13.5 


16.6 


69.9 


9.1 


9.1 


30.3 




18.2 


33.4 




5 


1909 


15.0 


21.0 


64.0 


4.4 


30.0 


37.3 




15.0 




13.2 


6 


4309 


15.6 


21.9 


62.5 


6.2 


24.0 


38.8 




23.3 




7.7 


7 


3892 


16.0 


13.0 


71.0 


7.1 


21.3 


35.5 


2.8 


12.1 




21.2 


8 


3820 


15.8 


19.2 


65.0 


10.0 


28.5 


30.8 


.8 


13.9 


15.4 


.7 


9 


6117 


17.3 


26.2 


56.5 


8.7 


17.4 


31.6 


1.0 


24.0 


17.3 




10 


4292 


17.5 


26.5 


56.0 


5.9 


24.5 


39.1 


2.0 


17.6 


10.8 




11 


7530 


19.9 


30.1 


50.0 


12.3 


25.0 


50.0 


1.2 


10.0 




1.3 


12 


7178 


19.3 


29.2 


51.5 


9.4 


22.4 


58.8 




9.4 






13 


3961 


15.6 


22.4 


62.0 


11.2 


24.8 


40.0 




24.0 






14 


3459 


14.1 


20.1 


65.8 


10.2 


20.3 


33.7 


.7 


23.6 




11.5 


15 


3938 


13.7 


19.5 


66.8 


6.4 


22.5 


35.5 




19.4 




16.2 


16 


5801 


15.6 


28.1 


56.3 


4.4 


17.3 


15.6 


.9 


17.4 




44.4 


17 


3986 


13.7 


15.8 


70.5 


12.3 


12.3 


31.2 




18.7 


11.8 


13.7 



Levies in towns and cities for water, lighting, and the like, are 
grouped in I'able xlv under the heading, "All other purposes," 
simply because there is nothing in the other corporations which is 
comparable to these expenditures. Tax levies for all these purposes 
are much greater in the cities than in the towns. 

Tables xlvi, xlvii, xlviii, and xlix are derived from the 
preceding tables and express in per cents the distribution of the tax 
levies for the various purposes. For example township number one 
in Table xlvi is read as follows : The wealth per child of school 
age is $3,371, 15.6 per cent of the total tax levy is levied by the state, 
21.4 per cent by the county, and 63 per cent by the township. Six 
and seven-tenths of the total local levy in this township is levied for 
township purposes, 12.2 per cent is levied for tuition purposes, 13 
per cent for special school fund, .8 of one per cent for poor, 21.3 per 
cent for roads, and 46 per cent for gravel roads, or in other words, 
in this township one-eighth of the total levy is for salaries of the 
teachers in that township, which is about one-half as much as is 
raised for the roads and about one- fourth as much as is raised for 



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3.4 




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re 


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10.6 

8.6 


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7.5 

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10.6 




o 


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8.4 

4.2 
4.5 


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t^ 


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8.2 
11.8 

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11.3 

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10.0 

8.5 


10.7 

7.4 

11.4 


pBOJ pABjg 


21.0 

10.0 
16.2 
21.2 


lo \q <5 »-H 

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36.5 

18.2 
13.2 
17.7 


lo p o\ "0 po 

m^i^ooo -H 

tM PO -H (M -H 


12.5 

21.4 
31.5 


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'-ICSCOTflO Ot^OOOsO »-lCNCO'*tO 



[117] 



1 18 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

gravel roads. The variation observed in the state levies in the differ- 
ent types of corporations is due to the great variation in the local 
levies. When the local levy is low then the ratio of the state levy to 
the total levy will be high. 

Tables xlvii, xlviii, and xlix are to be read in a similar 
manner. By expressing the tax levies in per cent of the total, we 
have a basis for direct comparison of the amount of money raised 
for the various purposes in any corporation as well as the relative 
support in different corporations with the same type of school and 
relative distribution of funds raised in the one type as compared 
with the distribution found in another. These tables make it possible 
to avoid errors in inferring that one corporation is more liberal in 
the support of some department or account, when considered in rela- 
tion to the amount raised for other purposes, it is relatively low. 
In number five of the townships with district schools it will be ob- 
served that only ii per cent of the total local levy was for school 
buildings and 18.2 per cent of the total local levy was for the pay- 
ment of teachers. While in township number twenty-six one-third 
of the total levy is for the building and equipment of school houses 
and only 14.7 per cent for the salaries of teachers. The central ten- 
dencies and variabilities in terms of per cent are given in Table l. 
The average wealth per capita school population in townships with 
consolidated schools is $4412, as compared with $3251 for township 
district schools, $1912 for cities, and $1432 for town schools, which 
means that pupils in consolidated schools have fifty per cent more 
wealth on which the support of their education depends than pupils 
in townships with district schools, more than twice the wealth sup- 
porting the education of the city child and three times the wealth 
supporting the education of the town child. The consolidated 
schools not only have a greater wealth per capita school population, 
but also have a greater variability, while the town schools have the 
lowest amount of wealth per child of school age, and also have the 
least variability. From these facts it is safe to conclude that the 
towns are burdened much more for the proper support of the schools 
than any other type of corporation considered. It is necessary 
in comparing the relative standing of the different types of cor- 
porations as to per cent of total tax levied by the state, to also 
consider the per cent of the total tax levied by local authorities. 
While the state tax is the same for all corporations the per cent of 
the total tax levied by the state will vary according to the amount 





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17.9 
20.4 
21.4 

15.5 










Township 
Consolidated 
Town 
City 



[119] 



I20 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

of the county and local levies. The higher the per cent of the total 
levy levied by the state, the lower must necessarily be the local tax. 
In the townships with district schools the average per cent of the 
total levy, levied by the state, is 16.2 ; while the local levy is only 60.4 
per cent as compared with the state levy of 11.3 per cent in towns, 
and lo.i per cent in cities, and a local levy of 71.5 per cent and 74.8 
per cent in these corporations, respectively. In other words, towns 
and cities require a greater amount of money to conduct their affairs 
than do townships in which are district, and townships in which are 
consolidated schools. To determine the generosity of any corpora- 
tion in the support of its schools, it is necessary to compare the 
amount of money raised for the school purposes with the amount 
of money raised for all other purposes in that corporation. The 
average levy in townships with district schools for the general busi- 
ness affairs of the township is 12. i per cent with a variability of 4.8 
per cent as compared with an average levy of 8.1 per cent with a 
variability of 2 per cent in townships with consolidated schools and 
25 per cent in towns with a variability of 10.8 per cent and 36 per 
cent in cities with a variability of 13.6 per cent. In other words, it 
costs a township with district schools about 50 per cent more to 
conduct the general business of the township than it costs the town- 
ship with consolidated schools. 

When we compare the dififerent types of corporations in the 
amount of levies made for school purposes, we see that cities which 
average 15.5 per cent of the total levy for the payment of teachers 
and 18.8 per cent for special school funds, spend less, relatively 
speaking, for the support of their schools than any other type of 
corporation. The townships with district schools with an average 
of 17.9 per cent of the total levy for the payment of teachers and 

20.2 per cent for the special school fund, or a total of 39.1 per cent, 
rank second. Towns which devote 21.4 per cent of the total levy 
for the payment of teachers and 21. i for the special school fund or a 
total of 43.3 per cent rank third, while townships with consolidated 
schools with 20.4 per cent of the total levy for the payment of 
teachers and 35.9 per cent for the special school fund or a total of 

56.3 per cent of the total levy for school purposes, are most liberal 
in the support of their schools. 

If the assumption that consolidated schools are located in town- 
ships with better public highways is true, it is because these town- 
ships have better highways on account of natural conditions than on 



TABLE LI 

Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for Town- 
ship District Schools 











Per cent the levy 


Number of 


Wealth per 


Per cent the state 


Per cent the local 


for tuition and 


township 


capita 


levy is of total levy 


levy is of total levy 


special school 

fund is of total 

local levy 


5 


$ 971 


14.3 


61.4 


19.2 


18 


1171 


12.4 


60.5 


42.0 


11 


1411 


18.3 


53.4 


23.7 


8 


1641 


13.5 


64.3 


39.4 


6 


1677 


11.3 


69.0 


36.9 


2 


1835 


11.5 


65.7 


49.5 


7 


2205 


13.1 


67.8 


36.8 


8 


2208 


13.5 


59.7 


39.4 


Average 


1639 .8 


13.48 


62.72 


36.1 


15 


$6121 


18.9 


54.2 


38.5 


25 


5794 


16.3 


58.9 


30.7 


29 


5481 


17.9 


48.2 


54.6 


21 


4674 


21.3 


53.1 


35.4 


27 


4483 


17.7 


55.5 


41.0 


20 


4475 


16.5 


60.0 


34.8 


28 


4339 


19.7 


52.5 


37.2 


16 


4230 


16.1 


64.5 


23.5 


Average 


4949 .6 


18.1 


55.36 


36.9 



TABLE LII 

Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for Con- 
solidated Schools 











Per cent the levy 


Number of 
township 


Wealth per capita 


Per cent the state levy 
is of total levy 


Percent the local levy 
is of total levy 


for tuition and 

special school 

funds is of total 

local levy 


5 


$1909 


15.0 


64.0 


67.3 


14 


3459 


14.1 


65.8 


54.0 


4 


3735 


13.5 


69.9 


39.4 


8 


3820 


15.8 


65.0 


59.3 


7 


3892 


16.0 


71.0 


54.8 


15 


3938 


13.7 


66.8 


58.0 


Average 


3458 .8 


14.70 


67.10 


55.46 


11 


$7530 


19.9 


50.0 


75 .(W 


l: 


7178 


19.3 


51.5 


81.24 


2 


6041 


14.4 


61.8 


54.55 


16 


5801 


15.6 


56.3 


32.9 


9 


6117 


17.3 


56.5 


49.0 


1 


5001 


13.6 


61.1 


44.2 


Average 


6278 


15.0 


57.95 


56.1 



[121] 



TABLE LTII 

Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for Town 

Schools 











Per cent the levy 


Number of 
town 


Wealth per capita 


Per cent the state levy 
is of total levy 


Per cent the local 

levy is of total 

levy 


for tuition and 

special school 

funds is of total 

local levy 


2 


$1029 


16.0 


59.1 


55.6 


10 


1043 


21.2 


46.0 


24.7 


8 


1060 


9.9 


73.0 


48.6 


1 


1087 


9.4 


79.0 


37.4 


11 


1156 


11.8 


73.9 


45.5 


5 


1222 


8.4 


74.8 


46.1 


17 


1234 


9.9 


73.0 


42.7 


22 


1242 


12.1 


71.0 


54.0 


Average 


1133.1 


12.34 


68.72 


44.3 


12 


3027 


16.5 


60.0 


43.0 


6 


2419 


13.9 


66.0 


43.1 


14 


2256 


13.0 


71.3 


51.3 


18 


2293 


10.1 


75.6 


35.7 


4 


1941 


12.2 


71.3 


42.2 


3 


1905 


10.1 


70.8 


51.7 


25 


1819 


12.2 


70.4 


54.8 


23 


1654 


11.5 


72.5 


49.8 


Average 


2164.2 


12.44 


69.74 


46.45 



TABLE LIV 

Data for Showing Relation of Wealth per Capita and Tax Levied for City 

Schools 











Per cent the levy 


Number of 




Per cent the state 


Per cent the local 


for tuition and 


Wealth per capita 


levy is of total 


levy is of total 


special school 


city 




levy 


levy 


funds is of total 
local levy 


12 


$ 765 


10.0 


75.0 


26.7 


6 


1101 


10.2 


70.5 


45.4 


3 


nil 


8.2 


70.3 


36.8 


11 


1274 


11.4 


70.9 


38.1 


4 


1385 


9.3 


73.1 


39.0 


22 


1413 


8.2 


80.1 


27.6 


23 


1415 


9.3 


75.0 


27.7 


18 


1437 


8.6 


65.3 


28.9 


Average 


1262 .6 


9.5 


72.5 


33.8 


5 


3025 


12.9 


74.4 


37.7 


7 


2782 


11.3 


72.5 


31.1 


21 


2456 


10.7 


77.5 


36.3 


20 


2378 


9.8 


75.4 


32.9 


25 


2288 


11.2 


71.7 


36.4 


1 


2264 


10.8 


74.2 


36.8 


10 


2260 


10.4 


72.2 


33.7 


9 


2188 


10.5 


75.1 


45.2 


Average 


2455 


11.2 


74.1 


35.5 



[122] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 123 



account of the amount of money spent for the buildingvand upkeep, 
as is shown by the amount of the total levies devoted to the building 
and upkeep of roads. We find that 27.2 per cent of the total levy 
in townships with consolidated schools is for the purpose of building 
and repairing roads, as compared with 47.3 per cent of the total levy 
in townships with district schools devoted to the same purpose. It 
may seem a little strange that towns with an average of 19.6 per cent 
of the total levy, devoted to roads and streets, should spend more, 
relatively speaking, than do the cities which devote 12.2 per cent of 
the total levy for this purpose. This is probably due, as was stated 
before, to the fact that the towns are located in communities where 
there are a great many macadam roads, so that the amount of money 
devoted to this purpose is relatively high on account of the limited 
wealth of these corporations. 

It is generally assumed that there is a negative correlation be- 
tween the wealth per capita of any corporation and the amount of 
tax levied by that corporation for local purposes, that is, the greater 
the wealth per capita, the lower the local tax rate and vice versa. 
In order to determine to what extent this assumption is true the fol- 
lowing tables were compiled. 

The wealth per capita, the per cent of the total levy levied by 
the state and by the local corporation and the per cent of the total 
local levy levied for school purposes were taken for eight of the 
corporations with least wealth per capita and the eight corporations 
with the greatest wealth per capita in townships with district schools, 
and the average in each item for each group determined. In a 
similar way, six townships with consolidated schools, eight towns, 
and eight cities with the least wealth per capita and six townships, 
eight towns, and eight cities with the greatest wealth per capita were 
selected, and the average in each item of each group determined. 

TABLE LlV(a) 
Ratio of Wealthier Group to Poorer Group of Corporations in Wealth 
PER Capita and Tax Levies 





Wealth per capita 


State 


Local 


School 


Township 
Consolidated 
Town 
City 


3.02 
1.82 
1.72 
1.94 


1.33 
1.02 
1.00 
1.19 


.89 

.87 

1.02 

1.02 


1.02 
1.01 
1.05 
1.05 



TABLE LV 

Amount of Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in 
Townships with District Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 






g 
So 

111 


Mia ■5; 
S 9 a 




-0 

a 



T3 

en m 


i2 

a 


a 

S8 


i 


1 
1 


■0 — 

S « 
OH 


1 


$ 879 


$ 39 




$ 54 




$ 14 


$ 39 


$ 1025 


$ 1181 


$ 2206 


2 


2911 


46 




114 






71 


3142 


3625 


6767 


3 


1170 


64 




41 




149 




1424 


1672 


3096 


4 


1817 


34 


$ 271 


57 




48 


59 


2286 


3759 


6045 


5 


1011 


96 


151 


30 






32 


1320 


831 


2151 


6 


3540 


121 




122 




36 


1554 


5373 


3646 


9019 


7 


1039 


103 


204 


57 






104 


1507 


1653 


3160 


8 


1762 


100 




85 




187 


103 


2237 


2181 


4418 


9 


947 


24 




28 




10 


65 


1074 


1095 


2169 


10 


2299 


71 




112 






155 


2637 


3600 


6237 


11 


1619 


30 


335 


129 




385 


71 


2569 


695 


3264 


12 


1498 


114 


328 


118 




371 


171 


2600 


2175 


4775 


13 


1147 


136 




53 




229 


169 


1734 


3075 


4809 


14 


575 


116 




58 






33 


782 


1320 


2102 


IS 


630 


66 




14 






83 


793 


1541 


2334 


16 


1673 


63 








64 


174 


1974 


3296 


5270 


17 


1097 


86 




68 




488 


264 


2003 


1819 


3822 


18 


1035 


46 




69 






23 


1173 


820 


1993 


19 


992 


26 


1049 


29 




223 


75 


2394 


1443 


3837 


20 


1669 


32 




55 






397 


2153 


2855 


5008 


21 


1182 


57 








22 


181 


1442 


2135 


3577 


22 


2381 


111 




48 




42 


32 


2614 


4649 


7263 


23 


2878 


276 


558 


204 






340 


4256 


8037 


12293 


24 


1178 


83 




72 








1333 


2418 


3751 


25 


595 


45 




43 




28 


49 


760 


2469 


3229 


26 


2824 


168 




75 






170 


3237 


5391 


8628 


27 


1666 


70 


435 


32 




143 


204 


2550 


3154 


5704 


28 


3174 


283 




233 






170 


386 


4705 


8565 


29 


1160 


411 


18 


55 






255 


1899 


3374 


5273 


30 


755 


118 


106 


47 






181 


1207 


1748 


2955 



[124] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 125 



TABLE LVI 

Amount or Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in 
Townships with Consolidated Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 




<\ ID 


il-s 


it h. 

Mia ^rt 
C c aj 


2" 

3 c 


•T3 




■a 
II 


a 
H 


a 
S8 







SS 

u 

OH 


1 


% 1236 


$ 56 




$ 85 


$290 




% 123 


$ 1790 


$ 1207 


$ 2997 


2 


642 


38 




31 




$ 38 


190 


939 


1641 


2580 


3 


1607 


40 




85 




178 


144 


2054 


2313 


4367 


4 


1196 


31 




59 




24 


73 


1383 


1443 


2826 


5 


1086 


156 




50 




1163 


74 


2529 


2719 


5248 


6 


1879 


146 




42 




32 


129 


2228 


5887 


8115 


7 


1673 


53 


$ 551 


75 






58 


2410 


4356 


6766 


8 


1498 


71 








1094 


206 


2869 


3639 


6508 


9 


844 


64 




55 




27 


167 


1157 


1927 


3084 


10 






















11 


617 


256 


219 


16 




228 


136 


1472 


2585 


4057 


12 


228 


440 


168 


13 




183 


107 


1139 


2165 


3304 


13 


821 


73 


116 


51 




94 


137 


1292 


1901 


3193 


14 


568 


46 


80 


35 




321 


68 


1118 


1316 


2434 


15 


487 


51 


68 


30 




56 


48 


740 


1127 


1867 


16 


637 


159 


133 


11 




51 


99 


1090 


1734 


2824 


17 


977 


107 




62 




48 


143 


1337 


2144 


3481 



After determining the average of each group with the least wealth 
per capita and the average of each group with the greatest wealth 
per capita, the ratios of the former to the latter were found and are 
given in Table Liv(a). While the wealth per capita of the second 
group in townships with district schools is 3.02 times the wealth per 
capita in the first group, the ratio of the state levy in the former is 
only 1.33 times that of the latter and the average local levy in the 
former group is .89 per cent of the average of the townships with 
the least wealth per capita. The average of the per cent of the total 
levy for school purposes in the group of townships with the greatest 
wealth per capita is 99 per cent of that for the group of townships 
with the least wealth per capita, which goes to show that in town- 
ships with district schools there is little correlation between the 
amount of the tax levy and the ability of the corporations to pay,. 



126 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE LVII 

Amount of Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in 

Towns 



Indirect 


Direct 




Ha 
JO E 


a 
o 

hi 


1^. 

all 


g-g 
2 a 


1 

bo 
o 

o 


72 


a 
H 


a 


e2 


1 


U O 

OH 


1 


$ 1544 


$ 47 




$ 80 


$369 


$1007 


$ 339 


$ 3017 


$ 2209 


$ 5226 


2 


521 


11 


$ 108 


36 




219 


16 


1280 


484 


1764 


3 


833 


78 


10 


31 




1115 


10 


2077 


1761 


3838 


4 


720 


14 


108 


23 




1140 


43 


2048 


2575 


4623 


5 


1499 


17 




51 




2376 


146 


4089 


2042 


6131 


6 


330 


23 


66 


18 




529 


40 


1006 


794 


1800 


7 


1412 


40 




80 




676 


51 


2259 


2554 


4813 


8 


1167 


40 




35 




982 


61 


2285 


1358 


3643 


9 


1295 


10 




33 




3269 


642 


5249 


2442 


7691 


10 


1098 


35 


231 


83 




72 


13 


1532 


167 


1699 


11 


1248 


33 




75 




2573 


95 


4024 


1887 


5911 


12 


716 


99 


101 


45 




360 


73 


1394 


1659 


3053 


13 


1254 


56 




86 




1116 


24 


2536 


2029 


4565 


14 


1015 


48 








1070 




2133 


2801 


4934 


15 


1291 


33 


1365 


39 




2029 


46 


4803 


2136 


6939 


16 


1988 


93 




40 




819 


63 


3003 


3211 


6214 


17 


985 


47 




44 




1824 


59 


2959 


1886 


4845 


18 


1276 


24 




40 




389 


52 


1781 


2024 


3805 


19 


1883 


90 




23 




28 


98 


2122 


5688 


7810 


20 


1825 


84 




41 




1729 


61 


3740 


3140 


6880 


21 


416 


19 




28 




752 


18 


1233 


985 


2218 


22 


1148 


14 




50 




1163 


74 


2449 


1872 


4321 


23 


1002 


19 




27 




1291 


110 


2449 


2348 


4797 


24 


665 


40 




32 


755 


511 


162 


2165 


1192 


3351 


25 


778 


69 




61 




2031 


65 


3004 


1647 


4651 



and that the support of schools is determined by other factors than 
the wealth per capita school population in these communities. What 
is said of townships with district schools also holds true, though in 
a somewhat more striking way. in townships with consolidated 
schools. Instead of the relatively smaller amount in the wealthier 
corporations being devoted to schools, it will be observed that there 
is a very slight increase in the per cent devoted to them in these 
corporations. The same condition prevails in both town and city 
schools. These tables show that the assumption, that the wealthier 
the community the lower the tax rate, is not well founded. While 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 127 



TABLE LVIII 
Amount of Money Received from the Various Sources for Tuition Fund in 

Cities 



Indirect 


Direct 




§ 


a 


cSlI 


Ml 




-a 
a 

Q 


•a 

C/3 « 


1 


Is 

S2 


13 


CO 

3 


■0 — 

Oh 


1 


$ 3575 


$ 66 




$108 




$4618 


$ 259 


$ 8626 


$ 8690 


$17316 


2 
3 
4 


2976 


238 




67 




1830 


346 


5457 


6340 


11797 


11775 


31 




354 




4428 


2654 


19242 


18007 


37249 


5 


7372 


156 




630 




1548 


365 


10071 


10820 


20891 


6 


6234 


94 


$ 72 


183 




901 


281 


7765 


7919 


15684 


7 


8975 


404 




621 




3777 


1913 


15690 


17483 


33173 


8 


2447 


63 


2588 


74 




1436 


344 


6952 


3643 


10595 


9 


8384 


100 




367 




1350 


470 


10671 


13181 


23852 


10 


5963 


352 




288 




3598 


160 


10361 


16833 


27194 


11 


2895 


68 


602 


240 




1522 


110 


5437 


3968 


9405 


12 


17290 


328 


2574 


506 




999 


557 


22255 


3472 


25727 


13 


15875 


354 




831 




7649 


326 


25035 


22045 


47080 


14 


16081 


261 


3013 


287 




1572 


571 


21785 


16095 


37880 


15 


4407 


169 


867 


241 




1518 


314 


7516 


6168 


13684 


16 


5345 


250 




109 




5350 




11054 


11187 


22241 


17 


5080 


264 




267 




3438 


4567 


13616 


8950 


22566 


18 


3097 


140 




208 




3087 


148 


6680 


3356 


10036 


19 


5305 


252 




64 




2306 


726 


8653 


9815 


18468 


20 


4415 


334 




291 




2920 


482 


8442 


9663 


18105 


21 


4283 


30 




99 




3580 


529 


8521 


10708 


19229 


22 


4326 


385 




280 




2031 


65 


7087 


7270 


14357 


fe 23 

, 24 

25 


9558 


325 




295 




3874 


156 


14208 


13930 


28138 


23495 


120 


5912 


442 




1302 


2706 


33977 


30854 


64831 



there may be a very slight decrease in the amount of levy in the 
wealthier corporations, it is much safer to assume that the total tax 
levies in the communities is determined without any reference to the 
wealth of the community and that the larger amount of money raised 
in the wealthier communities is about equally distributed among the 
various expenditures of that corporation, though the schools receive 
a little more liberal support, relatively speaking, in the corporations 
with the greater wealth. 



TABLE LIX 

Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for Township District 

Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 






S-3 

all 


O m 
3 a 

2 3 


i 


T3 


p 


Is 

§8 


1 


5 


1 


39.6 


1.8 




2.5 




.7 


1.8 


46.5 


53.5 


2 


43.1 


.7 




1.6 






1.0 


46.4 


53.6 


3 


38.0 


2.0 




1.3 




4.7 




46.0 


54.0 


4 


30.0 


.6 


4.5 


.9 




.8 


1.0 


37.7 


62.3 


5 


47.0 


4.4 


7.0 


1.4 






1.5 


61.4 


38.6 


6 


39.2 


1.3 




1.4 




.4 


17.3 


59.6 


40.4 


7 


32.8 


3.2, 


6.5 


1.7 






3.3 


47.6 


52.4 


8 


39.9 


2.3 




1.9 




4.2 


2.3 


50.6 


49.4 


9 


43.5 


1.1 




1.2 




.4 


3.0 


49.2 


50.8 


10 


36.8 


1.1 




1.8 






2.5 


42.3 


57.7 


11 


49.6 


.9 


10.3 


4.0 




11.8 


2.2 


78.8 


21.2 


12 


31.4 


2.4 


6.9 


2.5 




7.8 


3.6 


54.5 


45.5 


13 


23.8 


2.8 




1.1 




4.8 


3.5 


36.0 


64.0 


14 


27.4 


5.5 




2.7 






1.6 


37.3 


62.7 


15 


27.1 


2.7 




.6 






3.6 


34.0 


66.0 


16 


31.7 


1.2 








1.2 


3.3 


37.4 


62.6 


17 


28.8 


2.2 




1.8 




12.7 


6.8 


52.3 


47.6 


18 


51.9 


2.3 




3.5 






1.1 


58.8 


41.2 


19 


25.7 


.7 


27.4 


.8 




5.8 


1.9 


62.3 


37.7 


20 


33.4 


.6 




1.1 






7.9 


43.0 


57.0 


21 


33.1 


1.6 








.66 


5.0 


40.4 


59.6 


22 


32.7 


1.5 




.7 




.6 


.4 


36.2 


63.8 


23 


23.5 


2.3 


4.6 


1.5 






2.8 


34.7 


65.3 


24 


31.4 


2.2 




1.8 








35.4 


64.6 


25 


18.5 


1.4 




1.3 




.9 


1.5 


23.6 


76.4 


26 


32.8 


1.9 




.9 






2.0 


37.6 


62.4 


27 


9.3 


1.2 


7.6 


.6 




2.5 


3.5 


44.7 


55.3 


28 


37.2 


i.i 




2.7 






2.0 


45.2 


54.8 


29 


22.0 


7.8 


.3 


1.0 






4.9 


36.0 


64.0 


30 


25.6 


3.9 


3.6 


1.1 






6.1 


40.8 


59.2 



[128] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana i2g 



TABLE LX 
Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for Township Consolidated 

Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 


S3<i 


o-a g 






T3 
C 


•a 


c 
2 
H 


is 


"3 


"3 


1 


41.2 


1.9 




2.8 


9.7 




4.1 


59.7 


40.3 


2 


25.0 


1.4 




1.1 




1.4 


7.3 


36.2 


63.8 


3 


36.8 


.9 




1.9 




4.1 


3.3 


47.0 


53.0 


4 


42.2 


1.1 




2.1 




.8 


2.6 


48.8 


51.2 


5 


20.6 


2.9 




1.0 




22.2 


1.4 


48.0 


52.0 


6 


23.2 


1.8 




.5 




.4 


1.6 


27.5 


72.5 


7 


24.6 


.8 


8.2 


1.1 






.9 


35.6 


64.4 


6 


23.0 


1.1 








16.9 


3.2 


44.2 


55.8 


9 


27.4 


2.0 




1.1 




.9 


5.4 


37.4 


62.6 


10 




















11 


15.3 


6.4 


5.4 


.4 




5.7 


3.4 


36.6 


63.4 


12 


6.9 


13.4 


5.1 


.4 




5.5 


3.2 


34.5 


65.5 


13 


25.8 


2.3 


3.6 


1.6 




2.9 


4.3 


40.5 


59.5 


14 


23.3 


1.9 


3.3 


1.4 




13.2 


2.7 


45.8 


54.2 


15 


26.1 


2.7 


3.1 


1.6 




3.0 


2.6 


39.7 


60.3 


16 


22.5 


5.6 


4.6 


.4 




1.8 


3.5 


38.4 


61.6 


17 


38.1 


3.1 




1.8 




1.3 


4.2 


38.5 


61.5 



Tuition Receipts 

Thus far we have been considering the support given to schools 
as compared with revenue received for other purposes. If a local 
community provided all the funds for the schools, no further 
analysis of tuition receipts would be necessary, but since much of 
the money received for the payment of teachers' salaries is derived 
from other sources, and since this money is distributed on a very 
inequitable basis, an investigation may lead to a better understand- 
ing of the problems of the different types of schools under considera- 
tion. It has already been shown that there is a wide variation in the 
wealth per capita school population in each type and especially 
among the schools of the different types, as well as a variation in the 
ratio of the average daily attendance to the total number of chil- 
dren of legal school age, so that the distribution of any fund on a 
census basis is inequitable, fails to stimulate local effort and to give 
relief where most needed. 



130 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE LXI 
Percentile Distmbution of Tuition Receipts for Town Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 


Ha 
So 


g 

ii's 


8. a 

a c i> 
t! 


3 s 


-a 
■B 




•a 


c 
H 


i 

S8 


"a 


73 


1 


29.7 


.9 




1.5 


20.9 


19.2 


6.5 


57.8 


42.2 


2 


29.6 


.6 


6.2 


2.0 




12.4 


.9 


72.6 


27.4 


3 


21.7 


2.1 


.3 


.8 




28.8 


.3 


54.0 


46.0 


4 


15.6 


.3 


2.4 


.5 




24.6 


.9 


44.3 


55.7 


5 


24.5 


.3 




.8 




38.3 


2.4 


66.8 


33.2 


6 


1^.3 


1.3 


3.7 


1.0 




29.4 


2.2 


55.9 


44.1 


7 


29.4 


.8 




1.7 




14.1 


1.0 


47.0 


53.0 


8 


32.0 


1.1 




1.0 




26.9 


1.6 


62.6 


37.4 


9 


16.8 


.1 




.4 




42.5 


8.4 


68.2 


31.8 


10 


64.5 


2.1 


13.6 


4.9 




4.3 


.8 


90.2 


9.8 


11 


21.1 




.5 


1.3 




43.5 


1.6 


68.0 


32.0 


12 


23.5 


3.2 


3.3 


1.5 




11.9 


2.4 


45.8 


54.2 


13 


27.3 


1.2 




1.9 




24.6 


.5 


55.5 


44.5 


14 


20.5 


1.0 




1.0 




21.7 




43.2 


56.8 


15 


18.6 


.5 


19.8 


.6 




28.1 


.7 


69.3 


30.7 


16 


32.1 


1.5 




.6 




13.2 


1.0 


48.4 


51.6 


17 


20.2 


.9 




.9 




37.8 


1.2 


61.0 


37.0 


18 


33.5 


.7 




1.0 




10.3 


1.4 


46.9 


53.1 


19 


24.1 


1.1 




.3 




.4 


1.3 


27.2 


72.8 


20 


26.5 


1.2 




.6 




25.2 


.9 


54.4 


45.6 


21 


18.8 


.9 




1.3 




33.8 


.8 


55.6 


44.4 


22 


9.6 


.3 




1.2 




27.2 


1.7 


56.7 


43.3 


23 


21.0 


.4 




.6 




27.0 


2.3 


51.0 


49.0 


24 


19.8 


1.2 




.9 


22.5 


15.2 


4.7 


64.3 


35.7 


25 


16.7 


1.5 




1.3 




43.7 


1.4 


64.6 


35.4 



Dr. Cubberly in his book, School Funds and Their Apportion- 
ment, makes, in his summary of conclusions, the following state- 
ment : "The use of the school census basis for the apportionment of 
funds as required by so many state constitutions and as used in 
whole or in part by thirty-eight dififerent states, though an im- 
provement over the 'taxes-where-paid' basis is nevertheless one of 
the worst and unjust bases of apportionment we have in use and its 
complete abandonment in the future for some better single basis or 
a combination basis plan is greatly to be desired " After presenting 
the data relative to this point, we shall attempt to show that a dis- 
tribution of forty per cent of the state revenue on the teacher basis 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 131 



TABLE LXII 
Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for City Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 


h 


a 


Congres- 
sional in- 
terest 


tn 


1 
1 


T3 


1 


li 


■73 


I 


1 


20.7 


.4 




.6 




26.6 


1.5 


49.8 


50.2 


2 


25.2 


2.0 




.6 




15.5 


2.9 


46.2 


53.8 


3 
4 


31.4 


.1 




.9 




11.9 


7.3 


51.6 


48.4 


5 


35.2 


.8 




3.0 




7.4 


1.7 


48.1 


51.9 


6 


39.3 


.6 


.5 


1.2 




5.8 


1.8 


49.2 


50.8 


7 


27.0 


1.2 




1.9 




11.4 


5.8 


47.3 


52.7 


8 


23.1 


.6 


24.4 


.7 




13.7 


3.3 


65.8 


34.2 


9 


35.2 


.4 




1.5 




5.8 


2.0 


44.9 


55.1 


10 


21.9 


1.4 




1.2 




13.3 


.7 


3S.5 


61.5 


11 


30.7 


.7 


6.4 


2.5 




16.3 


1.2 


57.8 


42.2 


12 


67.1 


1.3 


10.1 


2.0 




3.9 


2.2 


86.5 


13.5 


13 


33.7 


.8 




1.7 




16.2 


.6 


53.0 


47.0 


14 


42.7 


.7 


7.7 


.8 




4.1 


1.4 


57.4 


42.6 


15 


32.3 


1.2 


6.4 


1.7 




11.1 


2.3 


55.0 


45.0 


16 


23.8 


1.1 




.5 




24.0 




49.8 


50.2 


17 


23.8 


1.2 




1.2 




15.1 


20.1 


60.4 


39.6 


18 


30.8 


1.4 




2.1 




30.7 


1.6 


66.6 


33.4 


19 


28.7 


1.4 




.3 




12.4 


3.9 


46.7 


53.3 


20 


24.4 


1.8 




1.6 




16.2 


2.7 


46.7 


53.3 


21 


22.3 


.2 




.5 




18.7 


2.7 


44.4 


55.6 


22 


30.1 


2.7 




1.9 




14.2 


.4 


49.2 


50.8 


23 


34.0 


1.2 




1.1 




13.6 


.7 


50.5 


49.5 


24 

25 


36.3 


.2 


9.1 


.7 




2.0 


4.1 


52.4 


47.6 



and sixty per cent on average daily attendance basis would result 
beneficially to the schools in greatest need. 

For convenience we have classified the sources of revenue for 
tuition purposes under the two headings : Indirect, and Direct. This 
division is more for convenience and is somewhat arbitrary, as will 
be observed when we present the sources of each fund classified 
under the indirect receipts. The common school fund which is 
distributed by the state is derived from two sources : interest on a 
permanent endowment, and the money received from the state tax 
levy of $0,136 on each $100.00 of property and $0.50 levy on each 
poll. The permanent endowment is made up of the bequests of the 



132 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

national government to the state for educational purposes and cer- 
tain funds reverting to this endowment in accord with the provisions 
of the state constitution, and amounted to $8,846,825.10 in 191 1. 
The interest received annually from this permanent fund to- 
gether with the money received from the state tax levy was distri- 
buted semi-annually among the counties of the state on the census 
basis. The legislature of 1907 amended the law then in force by 
setting aside 5.2 per cent of this fund so that all school corporations 
levying a tuition tax of $0.25 on each $100.00 should receive aid 
sufficient to maintain a six months' term of school, and all corpo- 
rations levying a tuition tax of $0.40 on each $100.00 should receive 
aid sufficient to enable them to maintain a seven months' term of 
school. The fund for distribution in 191 1 amounted to $132,245.57. 
The total number of corporations applying for aid was one hundred 
eighty-four, representing thirty-five counties. The total demand 
made by these corporations amounted to $169,316.51. The addi- 
tional amount required to meet the provision of the law was met 
at a subsequent date by a special appropriation. The amount of 
money received from this special fund by the corporations included 
in this study is given under "Special State Aid." 

Under Congressional Interest is given the amount of money re- 
ceived in interest by each corporation from what is known as the 
congressional school fund. The United States government in the 
convention of 1787 obligated itself to the encouragement of schools 
and the means of education. The Indiana Territorial Convention 
in 1816 ratified this policy and reserved the sixteenth section of each 
congressional township for the use of schools. A little later a second 
township was set aside for the same purpose. Some townships dis- 
posed of this section when land was very cheap so that little was 
received, while others retained this property and received a much 
larger amount. The aggregate amount derived from the sales of 
these lands was $2,476,297.00. The Constitution of 1850 provided 
for the consolidation of this congressional fund with other funds to 
constitute what is known as a "Common School Fund." Complaints 
were made against this law, since some communities which had re- 
ceived much greater returns would be deprived of a part of that sup- 
port if distributed on the census basis, so that the matter was 
brought in the form of a test case before the supreme court. The 
decision of the court was such as to require the distribution to be 
made to each congressional township pro rata with the amount of 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 133 

money received from the sale of the school land of that township. 
In order to secure an equal distribution of funds, a law was passed 
requiring the county auditors, after having distributed the congres- 
sional funds to the various school corporations composing a con- 
gressional township, to so distribute the common school fund as to 
bring about an equal distribution in all corporations. This practi- 
cally places the distribution upon a per capita basis and substantially 
carries out the purpose of the law of 1852. This method of account- 
ing, however, is somewhat complicated and the state department has 
experienced some difficulties with certain county auditors in enforc- 
ing all the provisions concerning the distribution of these two funds. 
These facts will account for the slight variation in the amounts re- 
ceived per capita school population in the different school corpora- 
tions. 

The amounts given under "Liquor License" is the money each 
corporation received for the licenses to liquor dealers within 
that county. Since local option has become effective in a great num- 
ber of counties, many of the corporations received no money from 
this source. The law requires the assessor in each civil corporation 
to collect at the time of making the assessment, a special dog tax 
from all owners of dogs. The money received constitutes what is 
known as a "Dog Fund," which is used to pay for all animals killed 
or maimed by dogs. When this fund in any township in the state 
amounts to more than $100.00 on the first Monday in March of each 
year, the surplus must be reported and transferred to the county 
treasurer and constitutes what is known as the "County Dog Fund," 
which in turn is distributed among the townships of the county in 
which the orders drawn against the dog fund exceed the money on 
hand on the second Monday in March of each year. Any surplus 
left from the county dog fund after provisions have been made for 
the payment of all live stock and fowls killed or maimed in the town- 
ships of the county, must be distributed among the schools of the 
county in the same manner as the common school revenue of the 
state is distributed. 

The larger part of the money tabulated under "Miscellaneous 
Sources" is received from the interest on the money in possession 
of the school officials in each corporation and from tuition received 
from nonresident pupils attending the schools of that corporation. 
The amount of money given under the local tax is the money re- 
ceived from each corporation on the basis of the tax levy made by 



TABLE LXIII 

Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in 

Average Daily Attendance in Township Distmct Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 




o 

H 

■zS 






3 a 


T3 

1 


■a 
'o a; 
m to 


1 

(-1 

H 


lU 

1 


3 




"2- 
OH 


1 


$ 6.97 


$0.31 




$0.43 




$0.11 


$0.31 


$ 8.14 


$ 9.37 


$17.51 


2 


5.96 


.09 




.23 




^ 


.15 


6.45 


7.42 


13.87 


3 


7.04 


.39 




.25 




.90 




8.59 


10.06 


18.65 


4 


8.77 


.16 


$ 1.31 


.28 




.23 


.29 


11.04 


18.16 


29.20 


5 


8.15 


.76 


1.22 


.24 






.26 


10.64 


6.70 


17.34 


6 


7.45 


.25 




.26 




.07 


3.27 


11.31 


7.67 


18.98 


7 


8.24 


.82 


1.62 


.45 






.83 


11.95 


12.30 


24.25 


8 


9.95 


.56 




.47 




1.05 


.58 


12.61 


12.32 


24.93 


9 


7.32 


.19 




.23 




.08 


.50 


8.32 


8.49 


16.81 


10 


6.74 


.21 




.33 






.46 


7.74 


10.55 


18.29 


11 


12.83 


.24 


2.65 


1.03 




3.06 


.56 


20.38 


5.52 


25.90 


12 


9.13 


.70 


2.00 


.72 




2.26 


1.04 


15.85 


13.26 


29.11 


13 


6.23 


.74 




.29 




1.24 


.92 


9.42 


16.71 


26.13 


14 


7.87 


1.58 




.80 






.45 


10.70 


18.09 


28.79 


15 


8.29 


.86 




.18 






1.10 


10.43 


20.28 


30.71 


16 


8.75 


.33 




.34 






.91 


10.34 


17.25 


27.59 


17 


5.29 


.42 




.33 




2.36 


1.27 


9.68 


8.78 


18.46 


18 


6.90 


.31 




.46 






.15 


7.82 


5.46 


13.28 


19 


10.02 


.26 


10.60 


.29 




2.25 


.76 


24.18 


14.57 


38.75 


20 


15.17 


.29 




.50 






3.61 


19.57 


25.95 


45.52 


21 


5.62 


.27 








.10 


.87 


6.87 


10.16 


17.03 


22 


9.33 


.43 




.19 




.17 


.13 


10.25 


18.23 


28.48 


23 


6.96 


.67 


1.35 


.50 






.82 


10.30 


19.46 


29.76 


24 


7.80 


.55 




.48 








8.83 


16.01 


24.84 


25 


5.08 


.38 




.37 




.24 


.42 


6.49 


21.10 


27.59 


26 


7.59 


.45 




.20 






.46 


8.70 


14.49 


23.19 


27 


7.94 


.33 


2.09 


.16 




.69 


.99 


12.20 


15.09 


27.29 


28 


9.28 


.83 




.68 






.49 


11.58 


13.46 


25.04 


29 


5.85 


2.08 


.09 


.28 






1.28 


9.58 


17.04 


26.62 


30 


6.99 


1.09 


.98 


.43 






1.68 


11.18 


16.18 


27.36 



[134] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 135 



TABLE LXIV 

Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in 
Average Daily Attendance in Township Consolidated Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 




1 


1 
a 
2 


C3 

a 
.0 


a 


a 

3 


V 


i2 


8 

a 




C3 


1 




B 


*-• oj 







rt 


"! 


V 






a 


$3 


°1 
0^ 


a V 

a.s 


3 

3 





a 


a 

H 


i 


C3 
1 


C3 


<a 

a 


1 


6.86 


.31 




.47 


1.62 




.69 


9.95 


6.70 


16.65 


2 


6.29 


.37 




.30 




.37 


1.87 


9.20 


16.09 


25.29 


3 


5.36 


.13 




.28 




.59 


.48 


6.85 


7.71 


14.56 


4 


5.95 


.14 




.28 




.11 


.33 


6.82 


7.14 


13.96 


5 


5.92 


.86 




.27 




6.37 


.41 


13.83 


14.85 


28.68 


6 


5.71 


.45 




.13 




.10 


.39 


6.80 


17.98 


24.78 


7 


5.72 


.18 


1.89 


.26 






.20 


8.25 


14.92 


23.17 


8 


4.66 


.22 








3.41 


.65 


8.94 


11.33 


20.27 


9 


5.51 


.42 




.34 




.18 


1.10 


7.56 


12.59 


20.15 


10 






















11 


3.79 


1.58 


1.36 


.10 




1.41 


.84 


9.09 


15.95 


25.04 


12 


1.93 


3.72 


1.42 


.11 




1.55 


.91 


9.65 


18.35 


28.00 


13 


5.66 


.50 


.80 


.35 




.65 


.95 


8.91 


13.11 


22.02 


14 


4.24 


.34 


.60 


.26 




2.40 


.51 


8.34 


9.82 


18.16 


15 


6.59 


.69 


.92 


.40 




.75 


.65 


10.00 


15.23 


25.23 


16 


5.39 


1.34 


1.13 


.09 




.43 


.84 


9.24 


14.69 


23.93 


17 


6.34 


.70 




.40 




.31 


.93 


8.68 


13.92 


22.60 



the local officials. The total amounts received from each source are 
given in Tables lv, lvi, lvii, and lviii. The ratio of the amount 
under each item to the total tuition receipts are given in Tables lix, 
Lx, Lxi, and lxii. While the amounts received from each source 
per pupil in average daily attendance in each corporation are given 
in Tables lxiii, lxiv, lxv, and lxvi. 

Little is to be derived from the tables giving the total amounts, 
since so many variable elements have to be considered, but when we 
turn to the percentile distribution, we observe that there is a wide 
variation in the relative amount received from the indirect sources, 
among the corporations in each type as well as a variation among 
schools of the different types. 

This is illustrated by township number eleven, which received 
78.8 per cent of the money paid teachers from the indirect sources 
and only 21.2 per cent from the local levy, while township number 



136 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE LXV 

Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in 

Average Daily Attendance in Town Schools 



Indirect 


Direct 






"3 








"2 












1 


1 

§ 
E 

i| 


.-a 
a 
.2 

P 
u.S 


c 


3 
O" 


•T3 

a 
•2, 

i 

Q 


'3 


B 

H 


3 


c 


e2 





•3 
•a 



1 


$ 5.69 


$ .17 




% .30 




$3.70 


$1.25 


$11.13 


$ 8.15 


$19.28 


2 


6.20 


.13 


$ 1.29 


.42 


$4.39 


2.60 


.19 


15.24 


5.76 


21.00 


3 


5.07 


.48 


.06 


.19 




6.80 


.06 


12.67 


10.73 


23.40 


4 


4.23 


.08 


.64 


.14 




6.70 


.25 


12.05 


15.14 


27.19 


5 


4.72 


.05 




.16 




7.45 


.46 


12.82 


6.40 


19.22 


6 


3.58 


.25 


.72 


.20 




5.75 


.43 


10.93 


8.63 


19.56 


7 


4.90 


.14 




.28 




2.35 


.18 


7.84 


8.87 


16.71 


8 


5.77 


.20 




.17 




4.86 


.30 


11.31 


6.72 


18.03 


9 


3.63 


.03 




.09 




9.18 


1.81 


14.74 


6.86 


21.60 


10 


7.73 


.25 


1.62 


.59 




.50 


.09 


11.78 


1.17 


11.95 


11 


4.14 


.11 




.25 




8.56 


.31 


13.37 


6.26 


19.63 


12 


3.72 


.51 


.52 


.24 




1.88 


.38 


7.24 


8.64 


15.90 


13 


5.67 


.25 




.39 




5.04 


.11 


11.47 


9.18 


20.65 


14 


5.26 


.25 








5.55 




10.96 


14.61 


25.57 


15 


4.19 


.11 


4.44 


.13 




6.60 


.15 


15.63 


6.90 


22.53 


16 


4.12 


.19 




.08 




1.70 


.13 


6.23 


6.66 


12.89 


17 


2.94 


.14 




.13 




5.40 


.17 


8.78 


5.59 


14.37 


18 


3.31 


.06 




.10 




1.01 


.14 


4.62 


5.26 


9.88 


19 


7.94 


.38 




.10 




.12 


.41 


8.95 


24.00 


32.95 


20 


4.97 


.23 




.11 




4.71 


.17 


10.19 


8.55 


18.74 


21 


3.81 


.18 




.26 




6.89 


.16 


11.30 


9.04 


20.34 


22 


4.63 


.06 




.20 




4.69 


.30 


9.88 


7.54 


17.42 


23 


3.63 


.07 




.10 




4.67 


.40 


8.87 


8.51 


17.38 


24 


3.55 


.21 




.17 


4.04 


2.74 


.87 


11.58 


6.37 


17.95 


25 


3.28 


.29 




.26 




8.58 


.26 


12.67 


6.95 


19.62 



twenty-five has the reverse conditions, receiving 23.6 per cent from 
the indirect and 76.4 per cent from direct sources. Much more 
highly centralized tendencies are observed in tov^nships with con- 
solidated than in townships with district schools. The largest per 
cent of money received by any township with consolidated schools 
was received by township number one, which received 59.7 per 
cent from indirect sources and 40.3 per cent from local taxes, 
while township number six received only 27.5 per cent from indirect 
sources and 72.5 per cent from direct tax. It will also be observed 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 137 



TABLE LXVI 

Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in 

Average Daily Attendance in City Schools 



Indirect 



6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 
12 
13 
14 

15 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 
22 
23 
24 

25 



s^ 



; 5 .10 

5.97 

6.72 
7.10 

6.72 
6.62 
7.13 
6.44 
6.76 

7.80 
12.28 

7.24 
13.62 

7.79 

6.00 
5.79 
6.241 
5.32 
5.67 

4.68 
4.82 
7.12 

9.50 



.09 

.48 

.02 
.15 

.10 
.30 
.18 
.07 
.40 

.18 
.23 
.16 
.22 
.30 

.27 
.30 
.28 
.25 
.43 

.03 
.43 
.24 

.04 



$ .08 
7.58 



1.64 

1.82 

2.56 
1.52 



2.40 



.15 
.13 

.20 
.61 

.20 
.46 
.22 
.29 

.65 

.37 
.^^ 
.24 
.42 

.11 

.31 
.42 
.06 

.37 

.11 
.32 
.23 

.18 



.56 



2.54 
1.50 

.97 
2.78 
4.19 
1.04 
4.09 

4.15 
.70 
3.50 
1.35 
2.67 

6.03 
3.90 
6.22 
2.31 
3.73 

3.92 
2.26 
2.^9 

.53 



5 .37 
.70 

1.52 
.35 

.30 
1.48 
1.07 

.37 
.18 

.30 
.40 
.15 

.48 
.55 



5.40 
.30 
.73 
.62 

.58 
.07 
.12 

1.10 



$12.27 
10.96 

11.01 
9.61 

8.37 
11.64 
20.37 

8.22 
11.77 

14.73 
15.80 
11.42 
18.48 
13.25 

12.43 
15.51 
13.47 
8.68 
10.82 

9.32 

7.93 

20.60 



Direct 



$12 .36 
12.73 

10.36 
10.50 

8.53 
12.97 
10.61 
10.19 
19.13 

9.67 

2.47 

10.06 

12.80 

10.84 

12.47 

10.20 

6.76 

9.82 

12.39 

11.71 

8.10 

10.38 



14 .15 12 .09 



$24 .63 
23.69 

21.37 
20.11 

16.90 
24.61 
30.98 
18.41 
30.90 

24.40 
18.27 
21.48 
31.28 
24.09 

24.90 
25.71 
20.23 
18.50 
23.21 

21.03 
16.03 
20.98 

26.24 



that townships with consolidated schools received a greater amount 
from transfers than did schools in townships with district schools. 
There is also a very wide variation in the amount received from this 
source by consolidated schools, varying from nothing to approxi- 
mately one-fourth of the total tuition receipts. The widest variation 
with reference to amount received from transfers will be observed 
in cases of town schools which vary from less than one per cent in 
town number nineteen to 43.7 per cent in town number twenty-five. 
The greatest variation in receipts in city schools is found in the 



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[138] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 139 

amounts received from liquor licenses, though more than half the 
schools received no money from this source. City number eight 
received one-fourth of the money for support of teachers from 
liquor licenses. 

The central tendencies and variabilities are given in Table lxvii. 
It is usually assumed that cities receive a much larger per cent of 
their total tuition revenues from common school funds than do any 
other type of schools, but statistics show that the township with 
district schools, which receives 32.8 per cent, with a variability of 
6,1 per cent, from the common school fund, ranks first, while cities 
with an average of 32.6 per cent with a variability of 5.1 per cent 
rank second. Consolidated schools with a central tendency of 25 
per cent, with a variability of 7.1 per cent, rank third, while towns 
with a central tendency of 23.1 and a variability of 5.1 per cent, 
receive the lowest amount, relatively speaking, from the state. Con- 
solidated schools rank first in the relative amount received from the 
congressional fund, while townships with district schools rank sec- 
ond. If school officials equalize the amount of money received from 
these two sources, the ratio of the amount received fails to indicate 
it. It is ordinarily assumed that towns would rank second in the 
relative amount of money received from liquor licenses but our 
statistics show that this is not the case. This is due to the fact that 
local option has eliminated practically all saloons from the smaller 
centers of population and that a relatively larger number of the total 
school population of towns is enrolled in the schools. 

The report of the city superintendents for 1911-1912 shows that 
the larger per cent of the deficiencies was paid to townships in coun- 
ties in which there are no consolidated schools. Of all the corpora- 
tions included in this study, townships with consolidated schools and 
towns were the only ones receiving special state aid. A relatively 
larger number of townships with districts schools would show that 
the greater amount of money is paid to schools of this type. Few 
townships with consolidated schools find it necessary to call for 
state aid since the wealth per capita in these townships is so large 
that when the minimum levy required for the state aid, is made 
there is sufficient money to pay the salaries of all teachers in that 
corporation. It would be the exceptional city that would find it pos- 
sible to avail itself of this special aid. The miscellaneous receipts, 
under the provision of the law, show that school officials of consoli- 
dated schools receive greater returns for the money they have in 



140 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

their possession when not in use for school purposes. Notwith- 
standing the fact that the towns receive the lowest amount, rela- 
tively speaking, from the common school fund, they rank first in the 
total amount received from indirect sources. This is due to the 
fact that one-fourth of the total income for the payment of teachers 
is received from transfers, as compared with 11.7 per cent in city 
schools, 4.2 per cent in townships with district schools. City schools 
which receive 52.5 per cent from indirect sources rank second, while 
townships with consolidated schools, receiving 40 per cent, rank 
fourth. Naturally, the relative amounts received from local taxes, 
vary inversely as the amounts received from indirect sources. It 
will also be observed that the variability in the amount received from 
both indirect and local taxes is greatest in the town schools, while 
townships with district schools rank second. 

While there is a great variation in the amount received from the 
common school fund by the different school corporations as com- 
pared with the amount received from other sources, it is even more 
pronounced when we compare the amount received per pupil in aver- 
age daily attendance. By referring to Tables lxiii, lxiv, lxv, 
and Lxvi and the summary of which is given in Table lxviii, 
the effects of the distribution of school funds on the inequitable 
census basis will be seen. Notwithstanding the fact that the state 
distributed approximately $4.00 per capita school population, town- 
ship number twenty received as much as $15.17 per pupil in average 
daily attendance, while township twenty-five received only $5.08. 
A similar variation may be observed in townships with consolidated 
schools ; for example, township number one received $6.86 per pupil 
in average daily attendance while township number twelve received 
only $1.93 per pupil in average daily attendance. In town schools, 
number nineteen received $7.94 per pupil while number seventeen 
received only $2.94 per pupil in average daily attendance. The same 
inequality is found among city schools. City number fourteen re- 
ceived $13.62 per pupil in average daily attendance while number 
twenty-one received only $4.68. The total amounts received from 
indirect sources show the same variations in a more pronounced 
form. The reverse conditions will be fotmd in the amounts received 
from local taxes. 

By referring to Table lxviii it will be observed that townships 
with district schools which receive on an average $7.90, with a varia- 
bility of $0.80, rank first in the amount received from the state 



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[145] 



146 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

while cities which receive an average of $7.41 per pupil in aver- 
age daily attendance with a variability of $0.96 rank second and 
that consolidated schools receiving an average of $5.39, and a varia- 
bility of $0.84 rank third, while towns receiving only $4.50 per 
pupil in average daily attendance receive the lowest amount from 
the common school fund. While the towns rank first in the relative 
total amount received from indirect sources, it will be observed 
that they rank third in the actual amount received per pupil in aver- 
age daily attendance, the city schools ranking first, and townships 
with district schools ranking second. Only one explanation can be 
offered for this situation, and that is that towns find it necessary to 
run their schools on a much more economical basis than do the 
schools of other corporations. Notwithstanding the fact that town- 
ships continue in session a much shorter period than schools in the 
other types of corporations, the average cost per pupil in daily 
attendance for tuition is greater than that in any other corporation. 
Townships with district schools pay an average of $24.10 per pupil, 
as compared with $22.75 ^^ city schools, $21.45 ^^ consolidated 
schools and $18.73 in town schools. In other words, it is more 
economical from the standpoint of the amount of money paid teach- 
ers, to consolidate the district schools, but not so economical as to 
provide school facilities in the natural centers of population. One 
or two factors, however, have not been considered when comparing 
the amount of money received from the common school fund by the 
different types of corporations and the relative amount received from 
indirect and direct sources. One of the reasons for the great varia- 
tion in the amount received from the common school fund, which 
in turn will affect the total amount received from indirect sources, 
is that a great number of pupils are transferred to a corporation 
which has on the census basis a relatively low school population. 
Thus, towns receiving a great number of pupils from other corpora- 
tions for whom transfers are provided, receive only a small amount 
from the state fund on account of their very limited number of 
pupils of legal school age in that corporation. Another element 
which must be considered is the relative wealth per capita. In order 
to determine to what extent these factors enter into the situation and 
the effect of the application of a more scientific method of distribu- 
tion, Tables lxix, lxx, lxxi, and lxxii have been compiled. 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 147 

Eight townships were selected in the order of the amount re- 
ceived per pupil in average daily attendance from the common 
school fund, beginning with the highest, and a second group of eight 
townships were selected on the same basis, except beginning with the 
township receiving the lowest amount per pupil in average daily 
attendance from the common school fund. The ratio of the amount 
received per pupil from the common school fund to the total tuition 
receipts, the tax levy for tuition purposes, wealth per capita, school 
population, number of teachers employed, and pupils in average 
daily attendance in each corporation, were taken from the preced- 
ing tables and the average for each group in each of these items 
determined. In like manner six townships with consolidated schools 
receiving the greatest amounts per pupil in average daily attendance 
and the six townships receiving the lowest amounts per pupil, were 
selected and in the same way sixteen towns and sixteen cities were 
selected. In order to determine the effect of the distribution of the 
money received from the common school fund on the basis advo- 
cated by Dr. Cubberly and which is now employed in one or two 
states, the total amount received from the common school fund, the 
total number of pupils in average daily attendance and the total 
number of teachers employed in these selected groups of cor- 
porations were determined. Forty per cent of the total amount re- 
ceived from the common school fund was divided by the total num- 
ber of teachers employed, thus determining the distribution of the 
forty per cent of the total amount received on this basis. The re- 
maining sixty per cent of the common school fund received in these 
corporations was divided by the total number of pupils in average 
daily attendance, which gave the amount received per pupil on the 
average daily attendance basis. The amount of money received per 
teacher multiplied by the number of teachers employed plus the 
amount received per pupil in average daily attendance multiplied by 
the number of pupils gave the total amount received on the proposed 
basis of distribution. In order to make a comparison with the 
amounts received per pupil in average daily attendance on the old 
basis, this total amount was divided by the number of pupils in aver- 
age daily attendance which in turn gave the amount received per 
pupil in average daily attendance on this combination basis. In 
like manner, for purposes of comparison, the ratio of the total 
amount received on this combination basis to the total amount 
received for tuition purposes, assuming that each corporation 



148 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



modified its local levy so that the total amount would not be 
altered by the change in basis of distribution, was determined and 
given in the last cplumn of these tables. A summary of these re- 
sults is given in Table lxxiii. 

The application of the combination basis of distribution not 
only makes a more equitable distribution among the schools of the 
same type, but also equalizes the distribution among the schools of 
different types, as well as to give assistance to the schools in great- 
est need and to stimulate consolidation of rural schools. The eight 
townships with district schools receiving a larger amount from the 

TABLE LXXIII 

Summary of the Results if the Common School Fund w^re Distributed on 
Teacher- Average-Daily- Attendance Basis 





Average total 

amount received 

from common 

school fund 


Average amount 
received per pupil 
in daily attend- 
ance from com- 
mon school fund 


Ratio of re- 
ceipts from 

common 
school fund 
to total tui- 
tion receipts 


'3 
3, V 

li 


1th per 




i 
s 


1 

Pi 


3 
c 
CJ 


■0 

1 

Pi 


3 

a 



T3 
g 


8 

11 


T°-wp IK; 

Consolidated { K/ 

To- IK; 
««y IK; 


$ 1871 
1428 

937 
1026 

1164 

881 

12122 
4413 


$1554 
1585 

1009 
1334 

1339 
1568 

8428 
5074 


$10 .05 
5.96 

6.33 
4.23 

6.17 
3.45 

9.04 

5.42 


$8.10 
6.78 

7.03 

7.34 

7.07 
6.08 

6.42 
6.20 


32.7 
32.3 

32.2 
21.0 

31.2 
21.2 

39.0 
25.0 


27.3 
36.0 

34.1 
33.6 

35.0 
38.3 

27.9 

28.5 


.208 
.25 

.26 

.25 

.435 
.435 

.279 

.285 


$3328 
3478 

4102 
5297 

1397 
2198 

1669 
1710 



common school fund received, on the old basis, an average of 
$1,871.00, while the eight townships receiving the lowest amount 
averaged $1,428.00; but when we apply the combination basis of 
distribution, we find that the first group receives on an average a 
smaller amount than the latter group. When we consider the 
amount received per pupil, it will be observed that the upper group 
of townships received $1.95 per pupil less on the combination basis 
than on the census basis, while the lower group received $0.82 more 
per pupil on the combination basis of distribution than on the census 
basis. The ratio of the total amount received from the common 





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[ISO] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 151 

school fund to the total amount of tuition receipts in the two 
groups on the old basis are approximately the same, while on the 
combination basis the lower group with a higher tax levy will receive 
a relatively larger amount from the state ; thus in every particular 
the application of the combination basis to the township district 
schools will give the greater amount where there is the greatest 
local effort and the greatest need. The application of this basis of 
distribution to townships with consolidated schools would give a 
greater amount of money, not only to the lower group, but to the 
higher as well. The lower group would receive the greater amount 
and would practically equalize the ratio of the amount received from 
the common school fund to the total tuition receipts, with that 
received by the upper group. The greatest change would be ob- 
served in the case of the town schools. Since the town schools with 
their limited wealth per capita and high tax levy for tuition pur- 
poses, receiving relatively smaller amounts from the common school 
fund on account of the limited number of pupils within these corpo- 
rations, would receive much more money if distribution was made 
on the combination basis than any other type of school. The 
amount received per pupil in average daily attendance, however, does 
not equal the amount received in the townships with district schools 
and the townships with consolidated schools. The great variation 
in the amount received by the upper group as compared with the 
amount received by the lower group on the basis would, also, be 
eliminated. Naturally, it is the larger cities with their larger number 
of pupils and greater wealth per capita which would suffer on this 
new basis for the benefits received by the smaller cities and towns, 
yet the amount received per pupil in average daily attendance by the 
lower group on the combination basis would be greater than now 
received on the old census basis, while the amount received per 
pupil in average daily attendance in the upper group on the com- 
bination basis would be much less than that received on the old basis. 
This, however, is not inequitable when we consider the ratio of the 
amount received from the common school fund to the total tuition 
receipts and the tax levy of the lower as compared with the same 
items in the upper group. 



CHAPTER VIII 
School Finances — Expenditures 

As was stated in one of the preceding chapters, the total expendi- 
tures for the support of schools are met, so far as local efforts are 
involved, by tax levies made for two distinct purposes ; the one for 
the payment of salaries of teachers, and the other for the mainte- 
nance and operative expenses of the school. The former is called 
the tuition fund, the latter, the special school fund. In the preceding 
chapter an analysis was made of the funds for the payment of 
teachers, while in this chapter a study will be made of the distribu- 
tion of the money received for maintenance and operation. 

It was stated in the introduction that the data from which the 
following tables were compiled were taken from the itemized reports 
of the school officials to the county auditors and that the classifica- 
tion of expenditures as herein given were made by the writer with 
one assistant ; so that uniformity prevails throughout. Some diffi- 
culty was experienced in classifying some of the expenditures for 
supplies, since many school officials used that term to include most 
anything that might be needed for office or school purposes. In 
most cases, however, it was possible to determine for what the ex- 
penditure was made by reference to the original vouchers filed 
with the reports. 

The writer was influenced to a large extent by the investigation 
of City School Expenditures by Dr. Strayer in the classification 
of expenditures. Certain modifications were made to suit the local 
conditions. x\ few items are included in order to eliminate an un- 
usual element in a few of the schools, rather than for the purpose 
of comparing one type of schools to another in this particular. For 
example, a few school corporations spent quite a little money for 
legal services which was an unusual expenditure, and to be included 
under business administration would give erroneous results for that 
school in this particular. 

The practice of school officials and recent legislation has changed 
the distribution of funds somewhat from that originally intended 
by the law concerning the same. While the law originally specified 
that teachers' salaries must be paid from the tuition fund, it is 
possible under certain conditions for an unexpended balance in the 
special school fund to be used for this purpose when there is a 





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[157] 



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[158] 



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[i6o] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana i6i 

deficit in the tuition fund. Township trustees may pay transfer fees 
of pupils from one corporation to another, either from the special 
school fund or the township fund. In all cases where money was 
paid out of the township fund for the transfer of pupils and salary 
of township trustees, these expenditures are included in the total 
expenditures for maintenance and operation in the schools of that 
corporation. The total amount spent by each corporation for the 
maintenance and operation of the school for the school year in the 
different types of corporations are given in Tables lxxiv, lxxv, 
Lxxvi, and lxxvii. It will be observed that the expenditures 
are divided into two classes. The first includes what are called 
current expenses, while the second included additions and permanent 
improvement, including the public library expenditures, which are 
met by special tax levies. The percentile distribution of current 
expenses in each corporation of the four types of schools are given 
in Tables lxxviii, lxxix, lxxx, and lxxxi. While this dis- 
tribution gives an adequate basis for the comparison of one school 
corporation with another of the same type, the distribution of cur- 
rent expenses on the basis of cost per pupil as given in Tables 
Lxxxii, Lxxxiii, Lxxxiv, and lxxxv give a very much more 
satisfactory basis for comparison of the schools of one type 
with the schools of another. The central tendencies and deviations 
from central tendencies for both the percentile distribution and the 
distribution on the basis of cost per pupil are given in Table lxxxvi. 
In order that there may be no misunderstanding as to the mean- 
ing of the tables, it may be stated that the first group giving the 
gross amounts is to be read as follows : township number one spent 
for all purposes for the school year, the total amount of $3,690.00, 
of which $2,389.00 was for the payment of salaries of teachers, 
$275.00 for business administration, $107.00 for institute fees, 
$320.00 for transfers, etc. The second group of tables is to be read 
in like manner. The distribution of the total current expenditures 
of township number one is as follows : 64.87 per cent of the total 
amount was spent for payment of salaries of teachers; 35.13 per 
cent was for all other purposes ; y.72 per cent of the total expendi- 
tures was for the business administration ; 2.78 per cent for institute 
fees; 8.68 per cent for transfers; 2.27 per cent for janitor service, 
etc. The third group of tables are to be read as follows : The total 
cost per pupil in township number one for the school year was 
$29.28, of which $18.95 was spent for payment of salaries of teach- 



i62 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

ers; $10.33 for ^^^ other current expenses, of which $2.18 was for 
the business administration; $0.85 for institute fees; $2.54 for 
transfers; $0.67 for janitor service, etc. 

Before attempting an interpretation of these tables, it may be 
well to explain some of the items under which the expenditures are 
grouped. In all tables, except the first in each group, it will be 
observed that a certain amount of money was paid for supervision. 
The reason for not including the amount of money spent for this 
purpose as a part of the current expenses of the teaching staff, is 
that the fund from which this money is paid is different from that 
provided for the payment of salaries of teachers, the former being 
paid from the special school fund and the latter from the tuition 
fund. All superintendents and principals who give their entire time 
to instruction are paid out of the tuition fund, but if a superin- 
tendent spends a part of his time in supervision and a part of his 
time in giving instruction in the high school, his salary is likewise 
divided, one part being paid out of the special school fund, and the 
other, out of the tuition fund. All supervisors who supervise the 
work of other teachers and give no class instruction are paid out 
of the special school fund, but if they devote their whole time to 
class instruction they are paid out of the tuition fund. That is, all 
supervisors are considered administrative officers rather than teach- 
ers, so in all comparative statements, expenditures for this purpose 
are kept separate from expenditures for teachers' salaries. 

All expenses involved for the administration of schools outside 
of the superintendent's salary, legal service, and the expense for 
taking the school census are included under business administration. 
In the township where the township trustee is the school official, 
the total amount paid for his services is included in these tabula- 
tions. This, however, is not exactly accurate, since this officer 
exercises the three-fold duties of administering the schools, looking 
after all the roads of the corporation except the macadamized, 
which are under the jurisdiction of county officials, and caring for 
the poor. But since we have no basis for distribution of his salary, 
it is necessary to include the total amount in these tabulations. In 
a few of the reports in which the trustees gave itemized statements, 
it was observed that approximately three-fifths to two-thirds of the 
total expenditures were for looking after the schools. There are 
other officials who would be able, under a different organization of 
schools, to exercise these other duties with little or no additional 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 163 

expense, so that it is not an inequitable basis to include the total 
amounts. 

As was explained in a previous chapter, the expenditures for 
institute fees is the money paid teachers for attending township 
institutes, so that this item of expenditure will apply only to schools 
under the jurisdiction of the county superintendent, except a few 
towns in which school officials pay their teachers when attending 
a local township institute. In the expense accounts of practically 
every school corporation a certain amount of money was paid for 
the commencement exercises including a commencement speaker, 
music, and decorations. Also a few of the corporations arranged 
for special lecturers to come before the teachers and give addresses 
along educational lines. The expenses for these two purposes are 
included under the item "Commencement expenses and special lec- 
tures." Expenditures for the transportation of pupils appear in 
the accounts of the townships with consolidated schools and a few 
of the townships with district schools where an outlying school has 
been abandoned and the pupils transported to the nearest school in 
that corporation. For all other items given in these tables, the 
headings will indicate the nature of the expenditures. 

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the relative 
standing of the schools of one type with those of another, little 
attempt has been made to determine the relation of one school in 
the various items with other schools of the same type, but anyone 
interested in this phase of the work can take the data given and 
easily determine this for himself by methods similar to those used 
by Dr. Strayer in his City School Expenditures. By referring, 
however, to the central tendencies and deviations as given in Table 
Lxxxvi, as well as the percentile distribution of expenditures as 
given in Tables lxxviii to lxxxi, it will be observed that 
there is no marked central tendency and that variation is the chief 
characteristic. The extent of the variation may be observed in 
townships with district schools by referring to Table lxxviii. 
Township number twenty, which devotes 74.22 per cent of the total 
expenditures to the payment of salaries of teachers, expends twice 
the amount, relatively speaking, for this purpose as does township 
number twenty-six which spends 36.77 per cent. Naturally the in- 
verse variation in the amount spent for all other current expenses 
will be found. Even a greater variation will be observed in the 
expenditures for business administration. Township number fifteen 



164 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

spent 22.63 per cent for this purpose, while township number twenty- 
six spent only 4.32 per cent. It is difficult to understand how any 
school corporation can devote one-half of the total current ex- 
penses, not including teachers' salaries, to this one item, as is the 
case in township number fifteen, which is two-fifths as much as is 
paid for the salaries of teachers for the school year. The variation 
in the amount paid for transfers is to be expected and is not difficult 
to understand. The variability in the amounts paid for janitor 
service, is due in part to the practice of some township trustees, 
who, in order to economize, require teachers to take care of their 
own school buildings or pay for the same out of their own salaries, 
while others are more liberal and will pay even more than is required 
for the care of the building, in order to raise the salaries of the 
teachers. A somewhat similar situation exists with reference to 
the amount expended for school census. Some township trustees 
take the enumeration of the school children themselves and include 
the expense of the same as a part of their salaries, while others, in 
order to pay some political debts, may employ their "heelers" to 
take the enumeration with liberal compensation, but in most cases 
reports indicate that only fair salaries have been paid for this work. 
The amount spent for fuel and repairs as well as one or two other 
items vary greatly from the central tendency, ranging from less than 
one per cent to three times the average for the group. The amount 
spent for transportation of pupils by townships with district schools 
shows how extensive is the practice of combining districts in com- 
munities with decreasing population. 

The expenditures in townships with consolidated schools, on 
the whole, do not vary so greatly as in townships with district 
schools. The lack of uniformity in the matter of supervision and 
the great variation in the amount spent by corporations for this 
purpose is due in part to the method of accounting by the school 
officials. The same variation will be observed in the table for town 
schools. 

The variation in the per cent of the total expenditures used for 
the payment of salaries of teachers in consolidated schools is due 
to the variation in amount paid for transportation of pupils. For 
example, township number one pays 26.43 P^'' cent for teachers' 
salaries and 43.6 per cent for transportation, while township number 
thirteen spends 64.1 per cent for teachers' salaries and only 16.08 
per cent for transportation. While the variation in the amount re- 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 165 

quired for business administration in consolidated schools is not so 
great as in townships with district schools, it is quite marked as will 
be seen by comparing township number fourteen, which spends 
11.08 per cent of the total expenditures for this as compared with 
1. 3 1 per cent spent by township number fifteen. Except in a few 
of the townships in which there are no high schools the amount 
required for transfers is quite small as compared with townships 
with district schools, yet the additional amounts paid by the latter 
do not equal the additional amount required by the former for 
transportation. In other items the variation within the group is 
not so marked. 

Much greater uniformity is observed in the expenditures of town 
than in the township schools, except in supervision, which has 
already been noted. The variation in per cent of total expenditures 
devoted to the salaries of high school teachers is due to a large 
extent to the number of high school pupils received from the sur- 
rounding country as is indicated by the amount received for trans- 
fers by these towns. The economy which most towns have to exer- 
cise prevents any unusual variation in most expenditures. 

The tables giving the distribution of expenditures on the basis 
of cost per pupil in average daily attendance show similar variations 
among the corporations of each group, but give a much better basis 
for the comparison of schools of one type with the schools of 
another. 

Table lxxxvi makes possible the comparison of one type 
with the others in each of the items given. It will be observed that 
a much smaller per cent is paid for the salaries of teachers in town- 
ships with district and consolidated schools than is paid in either 
the town or city schools. That is, in the case of consolidated 
schools one-half of the total expenses of maintenance and operation 
of schools is devoted to the payment of salaries of teachers, as com- 
pared to three-fifths of total expense in the case of townships with 
district schools and three- fourths the total expense in town and 
city schools. 

Since townships with consolidated schools, as well as townships 
with district schools, spend a much smaller per cent for teachers' 
salaries than do town and city schools, it naturally follows that a 
larger per cent of the total expenditures is devoted to miscellaneous 
current expenses by these corporations. By referring to the sum- 
mary of the percentile distribution of expenditures as given in the 



i66 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

upper part of Table lxxxvi, it will be seen that city schools spend 
5.96 per cent of the money for schools for supervision, and that 
towns spend 5.3 per cent with a variability of 4.28 per cent and that 
townships with consolidated schools spend .5 per cent for this pur- 
pose. This comparison, however, is misleading when we consider 
the facts given in the chapter on supervision, which shows that little 
real supervision was done outside of the city schools. The amount 
expended by towns for this purpose is, as has been explained before, 
due for the most part to the method of accounting in the different 
towns. When we remember that the tuition levy in many of the 
towns was the maximum amount permitted by law, it is readily 
understood why these corporations would draw from a special school 
fund for the salary of the head man and charge it to supervision. 
We see that townships with district schools spend 7.55 per cent with 
a variability of 1.93 per cent and townships with consolidated schools 
spend 6.4 per cent with a variability of 2.9 per cent for business 
administration as compared with .94 per cent for town schools and 
.63 per cent for city schools, thus in ratio to the total expenses, it 
costs from seven to fifteen times as much for the administration of 
the township schools as it does the urban schools. The two ex- 
penditures, institute fees and transfers, are common only in the 
township schools and are determined by fixed factors. Institute 
fees vary only with the salaries of the teachers in each corporation, 
while transfers vary according to the number of children attending 
school in some other corporation than the one in which they reside. 
Since the townships with district schools have no high school 
facilities, naturally these corporations pay a much larger amount for 
transfers than do townships with consolidated schools. Likewise, 
there is a much more pronounced variability. The larger the school 
organization the greater the per cent required for janitor services; 
townships with district schools spending 1.74 per cent of the total 
amount required for maintenance and operation, while consolidated 
schools spend 3.68 per cent, town schools spend 4.92 per cent, and 
city schools spend 5.88 per cent. Little variation was found in the 
relative amounts spent for office, school, and janitors' supplies, 
while towns spend a little larger amount for laboratory, domestic 
science and manual training equipment. Township and town schools 
vary little in the relative amount required for fuel, while city 
schools spend less than one-third that required by other corpora 
tions. Townships with district schools and town schools spend an 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 167 

equal per cent for repairs, which is sHghtly more than that spent by 
city schools and about twice as much as is required by consolidated 
schools. The reason so little is spent for repairs by consolidated 
schools is due to the fact that a great number of the buildings are 
practically new. There is no marked variation in the amount spent 
by the different types for printing and advertising, freight, ex- 
pressage, and drayage, telegraph, telephone, and insurance, but as 
is indicated under equipment, towns and cities are more liberal m 
their support of the school libraries. 

By referring to the lower part of Table lxxxvi, which gives 
the central tendencies and variabilities on the basis of cost per 
pupil, it will be observed that in the relative standing of the four 
types of schools for the various items given is quite different from 
that given in percentile distribution. The average cost per pupil 
in townships with district schools is $34-50 with a variability of 
$7.20 as compared with a cost of $44-85 with a variability of $5.71 
in townships with consolidated schools, $27.02 with a variability of 
$2.96 for town schools, and $32.75 with a variability of $4.76 for 
city schools. On the basis of actual cost per pupil in average daily 
attendance for maintenance and operation, we see that it costs nearly 
twice as much to maintain the consolidated schools as it does the 
town schools, and one-third more than it does the townships with 
district schools or the city schools. While in the percentile distri- 
bution it was seen that towns and cities spent a much larger per cent 
for teachers' salaries than for other purposes, on the basis of cost 
per pupil, towns spend less money for teachers' salaries than any 
other type, spending on an average $i9-9i with a variability of 
$2.07. Townships with district schools spent an average of $20.31 
per pupil for teachers' salaries with a variability of $3.99, townships 
with consolidated schools, $22.06 with a variability of $4-53 P^r 
pupil, and city schools an average of $24.22 with a variability of 
$2.54 for this purpose. The greater amount spent by city schools 
IS due in part to the fact that cities have a longer term of school 
than any of the other types. It may be added while speaking of 
the relative amounts spent for teachers' salaries, that the distribu- 
tion of expenditures for grade and high school teachers on the 
percentile basis gives a fair relative standing of the different types. 
The amount given in the lower table on the basis of actual cost 
per pupil is not intended to express the actual cost for high school 
and grade instruction, respectively, but merely the average cost for 



i68 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

all pupils for these two items. The reason for this is that in all 
reports, as has been stated, the average daily attendance was given 
in totals ; so it was impossible to determine the average daily attend- 
ance in high schools per pupil from the average daily attendance 
in the grades, and it was also impossible to determine the exact cost 
per pupil for instruction in the high school and instruction in the 
grades separately. 

When we compare the different types of schools as to the amount 
required for business administration, we see that townships with 
consolidated schools, which spend an average of $2.74 per pupil 
and townships with district schools which spend an average of $2.58 
per pupil, require eight to ten times the amount spent by towns and 
cities which spend $0.29 and $0.21, respectively, for this purpose. 
The variation in the relative amount required for janitor service re- 
vealed by the percentile distribution is not so marked when we 
consider the amount on the basis of cost per pupil, though the same 
relative standing of the different types of schools prevails. No 
marked variation in school and janitors' supplies, additional furni- 
ture, rent, printing and advertising, census, freight, express, dray- 
age, telegraph, postage, telephone, insurance, laboratory, and com- 
mencement expenses, on the basis of cost per pupil, are observed, 
while city schools spend a much smaller per cent for fuel on actual 
cost per pupil basis. The amount spent by consolidated schools for 
the transportation of pupils is $11.50 with a variability of $2.43, 
which is an expenditure peculiar to this type of schools. 

The fact that there is a great variation in the total cost per pupil 
in the different schools of each type, naturally leads to the inquiry 
as to the distribution of the additional amount spent by these schools 
over the amount spent by other corporations whose total amount is 
much less, on the amount spent for teachers' salaries. In order to 
determine this fact, eight corporations in townships with district 
schools, town, and city schools, and six in the township con- 
solidated schools, respectively, were selected in the order of total 
cost per pupil, beginning with the highest. In like manner an 
equal number of corporations were selected from each type begin- 
ning with the lowest. The per cent of the total cost spent for teach- 
ers' salaries, the per cent spent for all other school purposes, the 
wealth per capita, and the tax levies, for these corporations, were 
taken from other tables and compiled in Tables lxxxvii, lxxxviii, 
Lxxxix, and xc, in order to give some basis for comparing the 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 169 

corporations spending the greater amount with the corporations 
spending the lesser amount. The averages for each group were 
determined and are given in Table xci, together with the deviations 
from the average for the group. 

We find that the upper group of townships with district schools 
spend an average of $50.89 per pupil as compared with $22.26 per 
pupil by the lower group; — that is, the higher group spends an 
average of $16.83 more than the average for the entire group of 
townships, while the lower group spends $11.80 per pupil less than 
the average for the entire group. When we come to the distribution 
of these funds, we find that the group expending the greater amount 
for schools spends only 1.2 per cent more for the salaries of teachers 
than the average of the entire group, which is not nearly so large 
a per cent as is spent by the lower group, which spends 7.5 per cent 
more than the average for the entire group. The wealth per capita 
of the higher group exceeds the average for the entire group $11.37, 
while the average for the lower group is $1,093.00 less than the 
average for the entire group, or, in other words, the average wealth 
per capita for the higher group is more than twice the average 
wealth per capita for the lower group. The levy for tuition pur- 
poses for the upper group is only one cent on the hundred dollars 
less than the average for the entire group and seven cents less than 
the average for the lower group. The same observation may be 
made with reference to the tax levy for special school fund. The 
levy for the upper group is only three cents less than that for the 
average for the whole group and seven cents less than that for the 
lower group. A wider variation, however, prevails in the total 
amount of the tax levy. The average total levy for the higher group 
is sixteen cents on the hundred dollars less than that for the average 
of the total group, while the lower group is forty-five cents greater 
than that for the average of the entire group or sixty-one cents on 
the hundred dollars more than that for the higher group. The lower 
group of townships, spending a smaller amount per capita for the 
schools, spends a relatively larger per cent for the teachers' salaries, 
but the additional tax levy for school purposes in this group is not 
sufficient to equal the great difference observed in the wealth per 
capita of the two groups. 

When we compare the higher group of townships with consoli- 
dated schools with the lower group of the same type, we find that 
there is very little difference in the relative amount spent for teach- 



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CM ^ CM CM CM 


sapBjQ 


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t^ -"^ CO rsi On 
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uo '-I to Tt< r^ 


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I^'IOX 


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[182] 



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qqqcNq 


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o_<::>_ co^ 


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ro ■* CN lO 

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q ^_ NO_ Tt; 


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CN q q 


anoiidaiax 


SS^.:2S 


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GO_o_c:>_ q 


q 


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q q 


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i-^ q q •-; CO 


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.49 
.08 


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q q 


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^ ■■-< lO lO 

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ro t^ lO CO 

OO O rNl 




soTBda'a 


CN r<^ •p-< r~ tJ< 


CO CO ^ rOiO 
^ CN Tj<00 


vOr^t-Hrt*© 
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ov loiooo 

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cs 00 oo On O 
CN lO On On t-- 


■^ 


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q^. "*. 


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lO On oor^ 

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pnj 


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^^ ^ 


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^^ ^^ 


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— < CN ro ■* lO 


VOI^OOOn O 


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[183] 



o 






a 
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sis 

MS 

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aipwn^ 




rn PO VO t^ 

t--. ON P P 


33BI3AV 


ID ■<* ■^ "^ 
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00 Tt< On ^H 
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CNl CM 


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1 

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C/3 


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00 00 


.11 

1.15 
.71 


33BjaAV 


r^ O O 
ID ro Os 

ID ID 


r^ r^ ID 
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■*CD '-H T-4 


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O^CSiD 

ro 00 t^ 0\ 

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13.75 

22.76 

7.11 

8.53 


.a 


"3 
1 


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20.31 
22.09 
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24.22 


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16.84 


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1.65 

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1.25 


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15.88 
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22.60 


7.16 
7.91 
7.38 


a 
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CM !>■ Ost^ 

t^ ID CN rj< 


34 .06 
44.85 
27.02 
32.75 








:^ Township 
g J Consolidated 
a 1 Town 
ft- I City 


T3 

o o o.-S 
HUHU 

[Tdnd jad 
sjaso V SJB[ 
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[184] 





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187] 


73 
O.rt 

HUHU 
S|!dnd jad 
-lop m 1S03 



i88 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



TABLE LXXXVII 

Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent 
FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in Townseops with 

District Schools 



1 


1 


3 1 

»- ui y 


w en 

II 

g| 


'S. 

0. 
.a 

1 


Tax levy per $100 


"o 


a 


1 


I 

(/3 


"3 
1 


19 


$73 .84 


72.2 


27.8 


$4204 


$0.15 


$0.25 


$1.98 


20 


61.41 


74.2 


25.8 


4475 


.20 


.20 


1.92 


29 


54.44 


40.9 


59.1 


5481 


.22 


.25 


1.78 


30 


49.51 


57.3 


42.7 


4184 


.30 


.24 


1.80 


27 


45.08 


53.9 


46.1 


4483 


.19 


.22 


1.80 


14 


44.01 


57.7 


42.3 


2893 


.20 


.20 


1.63 


23 


39.54 


61.1 


38.9 


3588 


.26 


.22 


1.72 


25 


39.30 


68.9 


31.1 


5794 


.25 


.10 


1.94 


Average 


50.89 


60.9 


39.2 


4388 


.21 


.21 


1.82 


18 


19.35 


69.2 


30.8 


1171 


.25 


.40 


2.56 


2 


19.79 


69.7 


30.3 


1835 


.40 


.50 


2.77 


3 


21.06 


67.7 


32.3 


2208 


.30 


.20 


2.36 


21 


21.27 


59.3 


40.7 


4674 


.16 


.12 


2.36 


7 


22.91 


62.4 


37.6 


2205 


.30 


.30 


2.42 


5 


24.35 


70.1 


29.9 


971 


.25 


.15 


2.24 


10 


24 .57 


66.7 


32,. 5 


2527 


.25 


.15 


2.02 


6 


24.78 


72.1 


27.9 


1677 


.32 


.40 


2.82 


Average 


22.26 


67.2 


32.8 


2158 


.28 


.28 


2.43 



ers' salaries and that the lower group not only has less wealth per 
capita, but also a smaller levy for tuition and special school pur- 
poses, yet the total tax levy for the lower group exceeds by seventeen 
cents the average levy for the higher group. While there is a direct 
relation between the amounts of wealth per capita and the cost per 
pupil in townships with district schools, no such relationship prevails 
in the cost of consolidated schools. In the higher group of town- 
ships an average of $6.51 more is spent than the average for the 
group, while the lower group spends an average of $6.31 less than 
the average for the group, but this variation is offset, as was the 
case of township with district schools, by a greater per cent of the 
total amount of the lower group of corporations being spent for 
teachers' salaries than in the higher group. While the higher group 
spent 3.5 per cent less than the average for the entire group for 
teachers' salaries, the lower group spent 4.1 per cent more than the 
average for the entire group. The average wealth per capita, how- 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 189 

ever, for the higher group exceeds the average for the entire group 
$218.00, but the average for the lower group exceeds the average 
for the entire group $305.00. The tax levy for tuition purposes of 
the higher group vv^as at the maximum fifty cents on the hundred 
dollars, while the average for the lower group was only thirty-seven 
cents on the hundred dollars and the tax levy of the special school 
fund of the higher group was fifty-two cents, while the levy 
for the lower group was thirty-nine cents on the hundred dollars. 

TABLE LXXXVIII 

Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent 
FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in Townships with 

Consolidated Schools 



d 




"rt V 


3. % 


rt 


Tax levy per $100 





S 


3g| 


s& 


CJ 








.*- 


p. 


^-B-s, 


S,5 















-*-) ^ 


w 0. 


§ 













■M Cl-tfi 


■^ Ui 


Q. 








«> 





fl 3^ 2 


C ^ 


^ 


c 






J2 




QJ U. <L) 


Sj3 




_o 


rj 




§ 0. 


1^ 


U ^ Si 


fe° 


2 




"S 


"rt 


7^'% 


fSa 


fell 


oJ^ 


1^ 


I 




I 


11 


$57 .35 


49.8 


50.2 


$7530 


$0.20 


$0.40 


$1.60 


15 


56.27 


54.3 


45.7 


3938 


.35 


.55 


2.32 


12 


55.60 


35.9 


64.1 


7178 


.19 


.50 


1.65 


2 


52.58 


51.6 


48.4 


6041 


.25 


.49 


2.20 


7 


50.59 


54.8 


45.2 


3892 


.30 


.50 


1.99 


6 


49.09 


50.9 


49.1 


4309 


.31 


.50 


2.06 


Average 


53.58 


49.5 


50.5 


5481 


.27 


.49 


1.97 


14 


32.70 


42.2 


57.8 


3459 


.30 


.50 


2.25 


3 


32.90 


53.8 


46.2 


3995 


.23 


.50 


2.12 


4 


34.42 


39.4 


60.6 


3735 


.15 


.50 


2.36 


9 


38.58 


51.8 


48.2 


6117 


.18 


M 


1.84 


13 


40.60 


61.5 


38.5 


3961 


.31 


.50 


2.02 


8 


41.81 


49.7 


50.3 


3820 


.37 


.40 


2.00 


Average 


36.85 


49.7 


50.3 


4181 


.26 


.46 


2.10 



These facts with reference to the town schools go to show that while 
the schools are spending a less amount per capita for school pur- 
poses, yet they spend a relatively larger amount for teachers' 
salaries, the smaller amount paid by the lower group is due in most 
part to the unwillingness on the part of the towns to levy a tax 
equal to that of the higher group. 

The average cost per pupil in the higher group of city schools 
is $38.68 and exceeds the average for the entire group, on the 
basis of cost per pupil $5.93, while the average for the lower group 
is $27.17 which is $5.58 less than the average for the entire group. 



190 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 



yet the per cent of the entire cost devoted to teachers' salaries in 
the lower group is less than the average for the entire group, as is 
also the average for the higher group. When we compare the 
wealth per capita for the two groups, we find that the average for 
the higher group exceeds the average for the entire group $347.00, 
while the average for the lower group is $480.00 less than the aver- 
age for the entire group. This difference in wealtth per capita is 
offset to a large extent by the increase in the tax levy which for the 

TABLE LXXXIX 

Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent 
FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in Town Schools 







cS <U 


3, u! 


S 


Tax levy per $100 


6 


a 




"n 
c & 
0.3 























*J "1 


«a 










tH 





-w fi « 


■*J V- 


0. 












a S >-■ 


C! ?J 


Xi 


a 






^r\ 




D p. (U 


Sja 




o 


.s 




1 


11 


'"JS 


Jj 
PL, 73 




'3 
H 


a. 


3 
e2 


3 


$41.54 


69.5 


30.5 


$1905 


$0.50 


$0.65 


$3.14 


26 


35.58 


73.3 


26.7 










23 


34.14 


59.9 


40.1 


1654 


.50 


.50 


2.77 


19 


32.95 


84.6 


15.4 




.50 


.50 


3.14 


21 


32.34 


76.3 


23.7 


1583 


.50 


.50 


3.52 


20 


31.59 


70.0 


30.0 


1314 


.50 


.50 


3.42 


7 


30.12 


72.3 


27.7 


1508 


.50 


.73 


3.14 


4 


30.00 


76.8 


23.2 


1941 


.50 


.28 


2.61 


Average 


33.53 


72.8 


27.2 


1650 


.50 


.52 


3.11 


10 


16.34 


83.2 


16.8 


1043 


.07 


.10 


1.50 


6 


18.92 


82.1 


17.9 


2419 


.40 


.25 


2.29 


17 


19.15 


84.6 


15.4 


1234 


.45 


.55 


2.25 


9 


20.48 


81.9 


18.1 


1326 


.50 


.50 


2.18 


12 


22.75 


80.9 


19.1 


3027 


.20 


.30 


1.93 


8 


23.58 


77.1 


22.9 


1060 


.50 


.65 


3.23 


18 


25.18 


68.5 


31.5 


2293 


.35 


.50 


3.16 


16 


25.28 


84.5 


15.5 


1492 


.50 


.30 


3.22 


Average 


21.71 


80.4 


19.6 


1737 


.37 


.39 


2.47 



lower group is three cents more than the average for the higher 
group for tuition purposes and six cents more than the average for 
the upper group. A similar relationship exists with reference to 
special school funds. Taking all these things into consideration it 
is safe to conclude that most corporations with a limited wealth per 
capita so distribute their school funds that the amount for teachers' 
salaries more nearly equals the amount spent for this purpose by 
the wealthier communities, and economize in other expenditures 
but are not able to pay as large salaries as the wealthier commu- 
nities. 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 191 



We have seen that corporations spending less than the average 
for the entire group per capita for schools distribute the school 
expenditures in such a way as to minimize the difference in the 
amount paid for teachers' salaries by these corporations and the 
amount paid by the corporations spending a much larger amount 
per capita for school purposes. In order to do this these corpora- 
tions with limited means must necessarily economize in all other 

TABLE XC 

Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent 
FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in City Schools. 







"3 lu 


^S 


B 


Tax levy per $100 


M 


s 


2s'S 


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14 


$46.50 


71.5 


28.5 


$1567 


$0.40 


$0.45 


$3.86 


7 


39.80 


73.4 


26.6 


2782 


.40 


.23 


2.79 


24 


39.10 


73.5 


26.5 


1584 


.40 


.50 


3.48 


9 


37.31 


70.3 


29.7 


2188 


.40 


.64 


3.06 


10 


37.22 


69.3 


30.7 


2260 


.38 


.37 


3.06 


20 


36.88 


75.6 


24.3 


2378 


.35 


.45 


3.23 


25 


36.41 


72.4 


25.6 


3025 


.24 


.45 


2.46 


5 


36.18 


76.4 


23.6 


2288 


.24 


.50 


2.83 


Average 


38.68 


72.8 


27.0 


2259 


.35 


.45 


3.09 


6 


24.33 


78.5 


21.5 


1101 


.50 


.50 


3.12 


22 


24.54 


61.4 


38.6 


1413 


.37 


.50 


3.90 


17 


26.32 


68.4 


37.6 


1861 


.50 


.45 


2.96 


23 


27.45 


76.6 


23.4 


1415 


.38 


.35 


3.51 


4 


28.03 


76.9 


23.1 


1385 


.50 


.50 


3.52 


16 


28.32 


66.9 


33.1 


1704 


.50 


.50 


3.12 


12 


28.84 


87.0 


13.0 


965 


.10 


.50 


3.00 


19 


29.57 


69.6 


30.4 


1614 


.45 


.45 


3.67 


Average 


27.17 


73.2 


26.6 


1432 


.41 


.47 


3.35 



expenditures for school purposes. This necessarily gives rise to the 
question, "What is the distribution of the additional money spent by 
the school corporations in the different types which spend more 
than the average for the entire group?" In order to answer this 
question eight corporations from townships with district schools, 
towns, and cities, and six corporations from townships with con- 
solidated schools were selected in the order of the amount spent 
for all purposes except teachers' salaries, beginning with the highest. 
In like manner an equal number of corporations were selected be- 



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Township f Higher 
District <^ Total 
Schools [ Lower 


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;3 to 

11 


Hc/3 


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[192] 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 193 

ginning with the lowest. The amount spent by these corporations 
for the more important items, such as business administration, 
janitors' services, suppUes, fuel, repairs, census, transportation of 
pupils, insurance, and reference books, were tabulated as given in 
Tables xcii, xciii, xciv, and xcv. The central tendencies of each 
selected group and the deviations of the same from the central 
tendencies of the entire group are given in Table xcvi. 

A study of the results given in the above table shows no unusual 
variations. The average for the higher group of townships with 
district schools exceeds the average for the entire group of all 
expenditures for school purposes, exclusive of teachers' salaries, 
$6.25, while the average for the lower group is $6.33 less than the 
average for the entire group, which means that the higher group 
spends about three times the amount of money for current expenses 
as does the lower group. When we study the distribution of the 
money among the items mentioned, we find that practically the same 
ratio prevails in business administration, school supplies, and re- 
pairs. The higher group spends more for transfers and transporta- 
tion of pupils, but spends about the same amount for school census 
and reference and supplementary books. The amount spent for 
janitor service by the higher group exceeds the amount spent by the 
lower group about fifty per cent. The same ratio prevails in the 
amount spent for fuel. 

The ratio of the average of the two selected groups for town- 
ships with consolidated schools is much smaller than the ratio for 
the townships with district schools. The average for the higher 
group is $29.41 or $6.65 more than the average for the entire group, 
while the average for the lower group is $18.32 or $5.56 less than the 
average for the entire group ; that is, the average of the higher 
group exceeds the average of the lower group about sixty per cent. 
The average of both the higher and the lower groups exceeds the 
average for the entire group in business administration and fuel. 
The amount spent for transfers by the higher group is $1.02 more 
than the average for the entire group, while the average for the 
lower group is $0.18 less than the average for the entire group. A 
similar relationship but not quite so pronounced will be observed 
in the amounts spent for supplies, repairs, and transportation of 
pupils. 

When we consider the relationship of the two groups of town 
schools, much the same condition prevails as in the other types of 



194 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

schools considered. While the average for the higher group is little 
more than twice the average spent for the lower group, considerable 
variation is observed in the different items of expenditures. The 
upper group spends relatively more for janitor service, supplies, 
repairs, and reference and supplementary books, but the amount 
spent by the lower group for fuel and insurance almost equals that 
spent by the higher group and is greater than the average for the 
entire group. The average for the higher groups of city schools 
varies much less from the central tendency of the entire group than 
do the higher groups in the other types considered. 

Taking all these facts into consideration, it will be observed that 
more money for the township and consolidated schools means rela- 
tively larger expenditures for business administration, while a 
greater amount of money in town and city schools does not affect 
the cost for this purpose. A greater amount of money means a 
relatively greater amount spent for janitor service, supplies, labora- 
tory, manual training and domestic science supplies, and repairs, 
but does not necessarily mean a greater amount of money for 
fuel, school census, or insurance. 



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[195] 



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[196] 





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[197] 



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[198] 



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UOIJ-EIAaQ 




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■^ P 

1 1 


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IT) CVI ^ 


r- rt< t^ 
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"3. 

D. 
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uop^iAaQ 


.40 
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1.69 
1.33 
1.03 


2.05 
1.92 
1.33 


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2 

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2.97 
-2.94 


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6.25 
-6.53 


6.65 
-5.56 


3.38 
-2.09 


2.21 
-2.24 


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22.00 

13.75 

7.22 


29.41 
22.76 
18.32 


10.49 
7.11 
5.02 


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dnoi{) 


[Higher 
Township <j Total 
I Lower 


[ Higher 
Consolidated < Total 
I Lower 


[Higher 
Town \ Total 
1, Lower 


[Higher 
City i Total 
I Lower 







[199] 





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2.34 
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14.82 
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8.71 






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[200] 



CHAPTER IX 

Summary and Conclusion 

Having presented the data and determined the facts relative to 
the different phases of school work in the four types of schools 
mentioned, let us now consider to what extent the facts revealed 
justify some of the claims which have been made for the con- 
solidated schools and at the same time consider some changes 
that might be made which would result in the material improve- 
ment of the schools of all types. 

In the quotation given at the beginning of this study, we find 
the statement that consolidation gives an incentive for permanent 
improvement, beautifying the school grounds, and providing 
modern sanitation and schoolroom equipment. The facts revealed 
in this study justify this statement. The typical rural school is 
housed in a rectangular building that is lighted on opposite sides. 
The building is entered directly from the outside, heated by means 
of a wood or coal stove located in the center of the room, has no 
means of ventilation except doors and windows, shows little or no 
evidence of attempts at decorations, is equipped with non-adjust- 
able desks, twenty per cent of which are double desks, provided with 
unsanitary water supply and outbuildings, and has very meager 
library facilities. On the other hand the typical consolidated 
school is housed in a building that is modern in all its appointments, 
even surpassing the city and town schools in heating and ventila- 
tmg equipments, lighting, and the number t)f adjustable desks 
supplied, and ranks second to city schools in sanitary water supply 
and toilet facilities. 

Another claim made for consolidation is that it will enable a 
rural community to attract and hold better trained and more ex- 
perienced teachers. When we examine the facts presented, we 
find that sixty-seven per cent of the township district schools are 
taught by teachers with twenty-four weeks or less of professional 
training. One in every four schools is taught by an inexperienced 
teacher, and more than fifty per cent are taught by teachers with 
two or less years of experience. Approximately fifty per cent of 
teachers are in class A and receive an average minimum salary of 
$2.36 per day. On the other hand only fotry per cent of the 
teachers in consolidated schools have twenty-four weeks or less 



202 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

of professional training, and only one in fifteen is an inexperienced 
teacher. The average training of all the teachers in consolidated 
schools is forty-two weeks, while the average training of the 
teachers in townships with district schools is twenty-eight and 
eight-tenths weeks. Consolidated schools have less than half the 
number of class A teachers we find in the township district schools, 
while they have almost twice the number of class C teachers. The 
salary of class A teachers in consolidated schools is $2.50 per day. 
which is $.14 more than is received by class A teachers in town- 
ship district schools and the average salary for class C teachers in 
consolidated schools is $3.53, which is $.17 more than is received 
by class C teachers in township district schools. Thus we see that 
consolidation of schools means better trained and more experi- 
enced teachers and an increase in daily salaries. When we com- 
pare these facts with reference to training and experience of 
teachers in consolidated schools with the training and experience 
of teachers in town and city schools, we find that the teaching staff 
in the schools of this type surpasses the teaching staff in town 
schools and almost equals that found in the city schools. One 
fact, however, which should be emphasized is that with consolida- 
tion also comes feminization of the teaching force. In townships 
with district schools thirty-four and four-tenths per cent of the 
total teaching population were men, as compared with sixteen and 
six-tenths per cent in consolidated schools. Fewer men are found 
in consolidated schools than in the town schools, but there are 
almost twice as many as are found in the city schools. Thus the 
facts presented bear out the claim that with consolidation comes 
the professional improvement of teachers, longer years of service, 
and increase in salaries. 

The facts fail to substantiate the statement made by advocates of 
consolidated schools that consolidation means the introduction of 
specially trained teachers in such subjects as agriculture, home 
economics, manual training, domestic science, music, and art; an 
enrichment of the course of study, the enlargement of the school 
as a factor in the community life, and the development of the 
social activities in the school itself. It is true that quite a number 
of consolidated schools are provided with special teachers or 
supervisors, but when we come to the question of the enrichment 
of the course of study we find that consolidation has not brought 
about the general introduction of the newer subjects, which are 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 203 

peculiarly well adapted to rural life. Less than fifty per cent of 
the consolidated schools have made any special provision for these 
subjects, while nearly all have followed the lead of the schools in 
the larger centers by providing special teachers for music and 
drawing. On account of the nature of the organization and timely 
interest in consolidated schools, much more supervision is given the 
work in the schools of this type than in the township district 
schools, but little effective constructive supervision is found out- 
side of the larger cities. The facts relative to the social activities 
both in the school itself and in the community fail to reveal any 
marked improvement in the consolidated schools over that found 
in the township district schools. Notwithstanding the fact, that 
consolidation makes possible the organization of a great variety of 
student activities that would foster and develop interests in the 
problems of the community, no such organizations are found. 
Practically every school reporting student organizations have 
reported an athletic association or a literary society, such as are 
found in the larger centers of population, while all neglect these 
other phases of work which would be of much greater significance. 
A few schools conduct corn contests, but these are also found in 
communities in which there are no consolidated schools. A similar 
situation is found with reference to the activity of the school in the 
life of the community. While consolidation means enlarging the 
school constituency sufficiently to insure community activities in the 
common center, the only activities found in this type have been 
the one or two patrons' meetings per year, such as are found in the 
larger centers of population. The one school making the most 
consistent effort to stimulate interest in problems of the community 
through pupil organizations and to make the school a factor in 
community life by initiating and directing organizations for the 
patrons, was not a consolidated school, but a town school with a 
limited number of pupils from rural communities. This was an 
exceptional case, as the town schools as a type are inferior to con- 
solidated schools in these matters. While it may be said that 
consolidation makes possible these larger social activities of the 
school, our investigations conclusively show that these possibilities 
are not realized. 

A comparison of the statistics of the different types of schools 
bear out in part the claim made for the superiority of consolidated 
schools over township district schools in increasing the school 



204 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

attendance and ability to retain the pupils enrolled in school. The 
ratio of the enrollment to the school census of consolidated schools 
is 81.1 per cent as compared with 78.1 per cent for township district 
schools, 79.5 per cent for town schools and 61 per cent for city 
schools. When we consider the average daily attendance in each 
type, we find that while the consolidated schools excel the town- 
ship with district schools and city schools, they do not equal the 
town schools in this particular. Two other- conditions, however, 
need to be observed in summarizing the facts revealed, viz., con- 
solidation is found in townships where the ratio of pupils of 
school age to the total population is relatively small and where the 
decrease in total population is less marked, and that consolidated 
schools are located in townships with greater wealth per capita 
school population. The average for the schools of this type is 
$4,412.00 as compared with $3,251.00 in townships with district 
schools. Taking the tax levies as a basis for comparison, we find 
that consolidation requires a greater amount of money, not only for 
the payment of teachers, but also for the general maintenance and 
operating expenses of the schools, as is shown by the tuition and 
special school levies of the two types of corporations. This conclu- 
sion is not only substantiated by a comparison of school expendi- 
tures, but we also observe that while this increase is due in part to 
the additional cost of transportation of pupils, there is also an in- 
crease in practically all items except transfers. The average cost per 
pupil in townships with consolidated schools is $44.85, which is 30 
per cent more than the average cost per pupil in townships with dis- 
trict schools, 38 per cent more than the average cost per pupil in city 
schools, and 50 per cent more than in town schools. When we con- 
sider all these facts as well as the fact that consolidated schools 
are located in townships with 25 per cent greater wealth per capita, 
and that townships with consolidated schools spend much less money 
for the building and upkeep of the roads than do townships with 
district schools, we see at once that it is not at all feasible to adopt 
the policy of consolidation as the one general plan of education in 
rural communities, since it would be impossible to finance them 
under the present organization. The features in which the con- 
solidated schools surpass the township district schools as well as 
the failure of the consolidated school to realize some of the things 
which have been claimed for it, bear out this conclusion. While 
the typical consolidated school is housed in a modern school build- 



A Comparative Study of the Pour Types of Schools of Indiana 205 

ing, a sufficient number of equally well equipped one-room rural 
school buildings have been found to indicate that these things are 
not dependent upon this type of organization so much as upon the 
education of the community to the importance of these things. 

The failure of the consolidated school to realize the possibilities 
for the enrichment of the curriculum and to be a more vital factor 
in the social life of the pupils as well as the community, also show 
that these things are not dependent so much upon the form of 
organization as upon initiative and personal characteristics of the 
teachers in charge. We have instances reported in other states 
where the one-room rural school has given as much attention to the 
problems of the community and interests of the pupil as any larger 
school as well as being a genuine community center. While it 
must be conceded that consolidation makes possible a greater con- 
sideration of these things, it must also be acknowledged that empha- 
sis on the form of organization is not enough to attain these desired 
results. Too much attention in the past has been given to form and 
not enough to the real work of consolidated schools. 

The results of this investigation also show the need of further 
legislation concerning sanitary conditions of buildings now in use. 
While the law provides that all buildings remodeled and erected 
must conform to certain standards, it should also be provided that 
within a specified time all buildings used for school purposes should 
measure up to these standards. It has been shown that the two 
types of schools needing the greatest consideration, the township 
district schools and the town schools, would be greatly aided should 
the state adopt the plan of distribution of state funds on the com- 
bination basis instead of the census basis. The results of this 
investigation show, however, that the adoption of this plan of dis- 
tribution would be inadequate to meet the needs of all schools, so 
should be supplemented by a law requiring a greater tax levy by 
the state for school purposes to be distributed on the combination 
basis suggested. This would eliminate the necessity of granting 
special state aid to a large per cent of schools that now find it 
necessary to avail themselves of this special privilege, which has a 
certain tinge of charity that is displeasing to some communities. 
If there should be added to the increase in state tax levy for school 
purposes and the combination basis of distribution, a provision for 
special subsidies to stimulate local communities to provide superior 
equipment and initiate plans of correlation of the work of the school 



2o6 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

and community problems, which would result in a knowledge and 
appreciation of rural life and its opportunities, a good beginning 
will have been made toward the solution of many of the problems 
of rural education. It would also provide for an equality of educa- 
tional advantages and an equitable distribution of the burden of 
the schools throughout the state. 

The necessity for reorganization of the administration of rural 
and town schools is emphasized by the facts revealed by this 
investigation. While consolidation as a policy of rural education 
has its advantages and possibilities, these are frequently offset by 
the criticisms and difficulties encountered in administration under 
the present organization. When we find a number of schools paying 
as much for the transportation of pupils as is paid teachers for 
instruction and especially when we find a township paying more 
than twice as much for transportation as for instruction, we begin 
to wonder if the interests and welfare of the pupils have not been 
sacrificed for the sake of carrying out an idea. It is generally 
recognized and is verified by the expenditures of the different 
corporations for transfers and transportation of pupils that the 
civil township is not a natural unit for consolidation. It frequently 
happens that a small village or area of dense population is quite 
removed from the center of the civil township, so that to combine 
all the schools of that corporation into one, involves long hauls that 
are objectional to parents as well as involving an unreasonable 
expenditure. It also deprives these remote communities which have 
the greatest needs of much of the influence that a consolidated school 
should have on that community. Should the schools be reorganized 
on a basis that would eliminate civil township boundaries and make 
it possible to plan consolidation of schools with reference to centers 
of population, topography of the country, and condition of the 
roads, many of these objections would be eliminated. 

In comparing the expenditures in the different types of schools, 
it was pointed out that the business administration in the townships 
with both district and consolidated schools cost ten to twelve times 
as much as the business administration of schools in towns and 
cities. This is due in part to the fact that the office of township 
trustee is a political office which is supposed to compensate the 
incumbent for trouble and expense in securing it. This, however, 
is not the most serious phase of the situation from an educational 
standpoint. The township trustee is not selected on account of 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 207 

qualifications or interest in the schools, but either on account of 
his political leadership or association with some political leader. It 
also frequently happens that the township trustee is aspiring for some 
county office and wishes to economize at the expense of the schools 
in order to make a record that will command support for the 
higher office. These facts emphasize the need of a reorganization 
that will eliminate waste and place the schools in charge of men 
qualified for the responsibilities and interested in the schools instead 
of leaving them in the charge of men interested primarily in the 
financial returns and political prestige gained through the admin- 
istration of this office. 

A third reason for the reorganization of the rural schools is 
found in the need for a more adequate supervision of township 
districts, consolidated, and town schools. Under the present organi- 
zation and laws it is impossible for the county superintendent to do 
any constructive supervision on account of the number of teachers 
under his jurisdiction and multiplicity of duties. While the town- 
ship district schools suffer most from lack of supervision, a reorgani- 
zation which would insure a more adequate supervision of consoli- 
dated and town schools and at the same time provide for a continuity 
of purpose in the township district schools is greatly needed. As 
was pointed out in a preceding chapter, the principals of the smaller 
schools are .^elected with reference to ability to teach high school 
subjects rather than training and experience in supervising grade 
work. 

It has been shown that consolidation as a policy of rural edu- 
cation is somewhat limited in its application under present condi- 
tions. While a reorganization would make possible a wider adop- 
tion of this policy there would still remain a great number of one- 
room rural schools that are entitled to the educational advantages 
enjoyed by the consolidated schools. Under the present organiza- 
tion, where consolidation is under way, it is commonly thought 
that little can be done for the improvement of the township district 
schools, so that they are neglected with the idea that they may 
ultimately become a part of the consolidated school notwithstanding 
the difficulties that would be involved. There is need for a reorgani- 
zation that will insure the same consideration and definitely planned 
efforts to meet the needs of these communities as obtains where 
schools have been consolidated. 



2o8 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

A negative criticism of any system of schools is worth Httle 
unless followed by constructive suggestions. The problems indicated 
above can best be met by making the county the unit of school 
organization. While it is not our purpose to give the details of 
such a reorganization, it would involve the following: 

a. The election of a county board of education, composed of 
seven to nine members, which would have the management of the 
educational affairs of the county. The members should be selected 
for a term of five years at a special election with total disregard 
for political affiliations. They may be elected from districts or from 
the county at large. The duties and powers of this county board 
of education should be similar to the duties and powers of the city 
board of education under our present organization. Only traveling 
expenses and nominal salary should be paid each member. 

b. The selection of a county superintendent by the county 
board of education, who would be the chief executive of the board. 
The county board should be free of all restrictions in making its 
selection except certain qualifications as to training and experience 
that should be required by the state board of education for eligibility 
to this position. The salary should be sufficient to command the con- 
tinued services of strong well-qualified men for this important 
office. 

c. The county superintendent should be relieved of all clerical 
duties and the certification of teachers and have in addition to the 
powers now exercised, the power to nominate and place all teachers 
and assistants and to exercise supervisory power over all appoint- 
ments and work of the county board of education. 

d. The county board should elect a secretary or business mana- 
ger whose duties shall be to act as secretary of the board, to attend 
to all clerical and financial work of the office under the direction of 
the county superintendent and the county board of education, as 
well as to look after all other matters of this nature, which usually 
fall to such officials. 

e. There should be provision made for a special supervisor in 
each of the special subjects such as agriculture, household art, 
manual training, music, art, etc., for every thirty teachers or frac- 
tion thereof in the county and an assistant superintendent in all 
counties employing more than fifty teachers. 

f. All towns should be encouraged to disband local organiza- 
tions and become parts of larger school units with the towns as the 



A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 209 

centers. All towns in which the principal devotes less than half his 
time to supervision, all towns that do not provide special supervisory 
staff equivalent to that provided by the county organizations and 
all towns that receive one-half or more of tuition receipts from the 
common school fund and transfers, should be under the direction 
and supervision of the county organization. 

g. Provision should be made whereby a certain per cent of the 
salaries of the county superintendent, assistant supermtendent, and 
supervisor would be paid from state funds before these funds are 
distributed among the counties of the state. 

The adoption of the suggestion made, as a part of the school 
code of the state and the reorganization of the school with the 
county as a unit, as outlined above, may seem to many to be Utopian 
and too complicated to be of practical value. It should be kept in 
mind, however, that the present system with its changing, shifting, 
teaching population, unprofessional and oftentimes insufficient 
business administration and lack of supervision, does not provide 
an adequate basis on which to build an organization that will meet 
the present needs. If any real progress is to be made it is impera- 
tive that we have a strong centralized school organization with edu- 
cational experts in charge. The changes suggested are not Utopian 
and impractical, since many of them are in actual operation in other 
states. The United States Commissioner of Education has just 
issued a rural school letter describing the undivided districts in 
Minnesota, which have many of the characteristics of the organiza- 
tion suggested above. His closing statement is as follows : 

"There is close supervision of the rural schools. A corps of 
supervisors go from the central school at Grand Rapids to all the 
villages and one-teacher schools. Thus, for example, the manual 
training instructor, the domestic science teacher, and agricultural 
supervisor, or their assistants, spend a certain number of hours 
each week with all the schools in the outlying districts. This means 
that the teacher of the little school is under the immediate direc- 
tion of supervisors of the high school at Grand Rapids. It means 
satisfactory supervision and intelligent and efficient work." 

It should also be kept in mind that Indiana has already taken 
some steps in the direction suggested by providing a county agent 
who devotes his time to advancing agriculture, domestic science, 
and industrial work in the county. On account of lack of unity of 
purpose and the amount of territory he has to cover, it will be dif- 



2IO A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 

ficult to accomplish the things that could be accomplished under 
more favorable conditions. A reorganization which would more 
definitely correlate this work with the regular work of the school 
and provide for supervisors in related activities who would be free 
during the summer months to assist in directing practical work in 
the homes of the pupil as well as to assist in developing community 
interests and activities, would make possible great progress along 
these lines. 

The effect of such a reorganization would be observed in all 
schools, but would be most pronounced in the two types, the town- 
ship district and town schools, which have the greatest needs. It 
would result in better equipment, efficient business administration, 
more permanent teaching population, continuity of educational 
policy, adequate supervision and professional leadership, which are 
essential for real progress. 



VITA 

Lester Burton Rogers, born near Seymour, Indiana, Novem- 
ber 4, 1875 ; received his elementary education in the public schools 
of his native state; completed the work of Moores Hill Academy 
in 1893; entered Moores Hill College in 1895 ^^'^ graduated with 
the B.S. degree in 1899. His post-graduate work consists of one 
year (1902-1903) in Chicago University and two years (1906-1907 
and 1910-1911) in Columbia University. He received the Master 
of Arts degree from Columbia in 1907 and was awarded a "Re- 
search Scholarship" in Teachers College for the year 1910-1911. 
His published works consist of a Laboratory Manual for Physics, 
a series of articles on Physical Nature-study and a Syllabus for 
Secondary Education. 



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